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独脚金内酯及其新型衍生物

康兆勇 ,  董小绮 ,  刘胜男 ,  高清志

化学进展 ›› 2023, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (9) :1341-1356

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化学进展 ›› 2023, Vol. 35 ›› Issue (9) :1341-1356 DOI: 10.7536/PC221234
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独脚金内酯及其新型衍生物

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Strigolactone and Its Novel Derivatives

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摘要

独脚金内酯(Strigolactones, SLs)是目前最受关注的一类倍半萜类新型植物激素。近年来研究表明,独脚金内酯在抑制植物下胚轴伸长和农作物分蘖、调节根系生长发育、刺激寄生杂草种子萌发、协调寄生植物与真菌的共生相互作用以及调控植物对生物或非生物胁迫的响应等诸多方面发挥着至关重要的作用,被认为是农业科学和植物保护领域极具开发价值和应用潜力的新型植物激素。此外,研究发现SLs作为一种植物来源的天然产物,其对肝癌、乳腺癌、前列腺癌、胶质母细胞瘤和结直肠癌等多种肿瘤以及炎症及糖代谢通路均具有抑制活性,因此SLs及其衍生物在创新药物研究领域也备受关注。本文主要综述了独脚金内酯及其结构衍生物的最新研究进展,围绕其生物活性、作用机制以及构效关系进行分类总结和简要分析,为该类天然产物的分子设计和进一步开发利用提供研究思路和方向。

Abstract

Strigolactones (SLs) are the most concerned endogenous sesquiterpenoid phytohormones.Recent studies have shown that strigolactones play crucial roles in inhibition of plant hypocotyl elongation and crop tillering, regulating root growth and development, stimulation of parasitic weed seed germination, coordinating the symbiotic interaction between parasitic plants and fungi, as well as regulation of plant response to biotic or abiotic stresses. Therefore, it is considered to be a new type of phytohormone with great development value and application potential in the field of agricultural science and plant protection. In addition, SL derivatives have also attracted much attention in the field of innovative drug research as the studies have found that: (1) SLs exhibit inhibitory activities against several tumor cell lines such as liver cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, glioblastoma, and colorectal cancers; (2) they possess anti-inflammation and glucose metabolism inhibitory activity. This paper aims to review the latest research progress of strigolactone and its structural derivatives with brief analysis on their biological activity, mechanism of action and structure-activity relationship. We hope this review provide guidance and directions on molecular design, development and utilization of SL natural products.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Structural features and classification of strigolactones

3 The biosynthetic pathway and signal transduction mechanism of strigolactones

4 Structural characteristics and classification of natural strigolactones

5 Structural characteristics and classification of synthetic strigolactones

5.1 Canonical derivatives of strigolactone

5.2 Non-canonical derivatives of strigolactone

6 Conclusion and outlook

Graphical abstract

关键词

独脚金内酯 / 新型植物激素 / 绿色农业 / 生物医药 / 分子机制

Key words

strigolactones / new phytohormone / green agriculture / biomedicine / molecular mechanism

引用本文

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康兆勇, 董小绮, 刘胜男, 高清志. 独脚金内酯及其新型衍生物[J]. 化学进展, 2023, 35(9): 1341-1356 DOI:10.7536/PC221234
Zhaoyong Kang, Xiaoqi Dong, Shengnan Liu, Qingzhi Gao. Strigolactone and Its Novel Derivatives[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2023, 35(9): 1341-1356 DOI:10.7536/PC221234

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1 引言

天然的独脚金内酯(Strigolactones, SLs)是一类源自类胡萝卜素的倍半萜类植物激素,它最早于棉花的根系分泌物中被发现并作为根系寄生植物独脚金(Striga)的萌发促进剂而得名。1966年《科学》杂志首次发表了该天然产物的分子结构及其惊人的植物激素活性[1]。由于独脚金内酯调控植物生长发育的信号通路及分子机制异常复杂,直到2020年,我国中国科学院遗传与发育生物学研究所李家洋等在《自然》发表研究论文首次系统揭示了独脚金内酯全新的植物激素信号传导机制,并将独脚金内酯的研究再次推向了新的高潮[2]。

研究表明,SLs作为一种新型植物激素可以促进寄生杂草种子萌发和土壤中丛枝菌根真菌的菌丝分枝,有效协调寄生植物与真菌的共生和寄生相互作用[3]。此外,SLs在植物的根和茎部被合成后,能通过木质部向上运输或在茎局部直接抑制植物分枝,作为能够向上移动的内源信号负调控分枝的生长和发育[4]。近年来的研究发现,SLs能够抑制拟南芥下胚轴伸长[5]、促进植物叶片衰老[6]和参与植物根系的生长发育过程[7],如促进植物主根伸长[8]、降低侧根密度[9]、促进根毛生长等[10]。因此SLs在农业和植物保护领域具有非常丰富的应用潜力。随着对该类植物激素研究的不断深入,科学界对SLs的生物合成、运输和信号转导途径等有了更全面的认识。迄今为止,已从不同植物物种的根系分泌物中发现了30多种SLs[11]。但是较低的自然产量(每株植物每天25~30 pg)极大地限制了其开发利用[12],为此,很多结构简化并保持生物活性的SLs结构类似物被合成出来,其中以GR24为代表的人工合成类似物成为植物科学中研究最广泛的代表性SLs衍生物[10]。同时,最新的研究成果发现SLs对乳腺癌、前列腺癌、肝癌、结直肠癌、胶质母细胞瘤等多种癌症具有良好的抗癌活性以及炎症抑制和神经保护作用[13]。本文主要综述具有显著植物和生物活性的独脚金内酯及其衍生物的最新研究进展,围绕其生物活性、作用机制以及构效关系进行分类总结和简要分析,为该类天然产物的分子设计和进一步研究开发提供研究思路和方向。

2 独脚金内酯的结构特征及其分类

SLs根据其化学结构可分为典型和非典型独脚金内酯两类(图1)。典型的SLs具有相似的倍半萜碳骨架结构,可分为独脚金醇(Strigol)和列当醇(Orobanchol)两大类,均由一个三环(ABC环)内酯通过一个烯醇醚桥与5-羟基呋喃酮(D环)以醚键连接而成[3]。研究发现,烯醇醚桥和D环是其保持SL样生物活性的保守结构,D环C-2'的R立体构型是其保持强效发芽刺激活性的重要结构特征[14]。在天然分离物的A、B环上发现了烷基、羟基或乙酰氧基等不同官能团修饰,构成了天然SLs的结构多样性[15]。目前,30多种天然的独脚金内酯是从棉花、水稻、红三叶草、豇豆和烟草等植物的根系分泌物中分离得到,并作为寄生杂草种子独脚金(Striga hermonthica, S. hermonthica)、小列当(Orobanche minor, O. minor)和分枝列当(Phelipanche ramosa, P. ramosa)的萌发刺激物或丛枝菌根(Arbuscular mycorrhizal, AM)真菌的菌丝分枝诱导物。非典型的SLs是在研究独脚金内酯系列代谢产物的过程中发现的一类衍生物,其特点是含有保守的烯醇醚键和D环结构,但经典的倍半萜ABC环结构被多样化骨架的脂肪链所取代。

由于天然存在的SLs作为植物荷尔蒙的含量极低,结构类似物难分离,多数手性结构人工难合成,因此利用天然独脚金内酯开展分子机制研究和用途开发是该领域长期以来的一大挑战。为突破上述科学难题,研究人员在确认D环是维持SLs生物活性保守结构的基础上,逐渐设计并合成了一系列结构简化的独脚金内酯类似物。与天然结构相比,人工设计的SLs衍生物具有更丰富的结构多样性、实验室制备更容易,不仅为研究SLs的信号传导分子机制提供了种类繁多的分子探针,还从中发现了具有比天然产物活性更高和具有潜在开发价值的人工植物激素衍生物。表1归纳了迄今报道的天然存在的典型和非典型独脚金内酯代表性化合物以及它们的生物活性、来源及生物靶点。

3 独脚金内酯的生物合成途径及信号传导机制

SLs通过类胡萝卜素途径进行生物合成[49]。2012年,Al-Babili等[37]利用来自拟南芥、豌豆和水稻的重组含铁蛋白27(Dwarf 27, D27)、类胡萝卜素裂解双加氧酶7(Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 7, CCD7)和类胡萝卜素裂解双加氧酶8(Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 8, CCD8)进行体外生化分析时,发现这三种酶依次将全反式β-胡萝卜素(all-trans-β-carotene)转化为9-顺式β-胡萝卜素(9-cis-β-carotene)和9-顺式β-apo-10'胡萝卜醛(9-cis-β-apo-10'-carotenal),最后生成一种非典型结构的SL己内酯(Carlactone, CL)(图2和图4)。研究发现细胞色素P450酶(Cytochrome P450, CYP)的CYP711A亚家族在维管植物中将CL转化为典型和非典型SLs中发挥作用。使用同位素标记和基因突变研究发现,CL可作为拟南芥SLs突变体MAX1蛋白的底物,将CL转化为己内酯酸(Carlactonoic acid, CLA)并进一步转化为拟南芥内源代谢物4-脱氧列当醇(4-deoxyorobanchol, 4DO)和列当醇(Orobanchol, ORO)[50,51]。在水稻中,CYP711A2/水稻900(Oryza sativa 900, Os900)将CL转化为SLs天然衍生物4DO,CYP711A3/Os1400进一步催化4DO羟基化生成SLs天然衍生物ORO[28]。

在独脚金内酯的信号传导机理研究中,Kyozuka等[52]于2009年首次发现α/β水解酶14(Dwarf 14, D14)是一种独脚金内酯结合受体。随后,许多其他的D14同源体也被发现,如拟南芥D14(Arabidopsis thaliana D14, AtD14)[53]、水稻OsD14[52]、矮牵牛顶端优势下降基因2(Decreased apical dominance 2, DAD2)[54]、豌豆分枝基因3(Ramosus 3, RMS3)[55]和独脚金对光不敏感型基因(Striga hermonthica hyposensitive to light, ShHTL)等[56]。如图3所示,SL与D14受体蛋白结合后,SL发生水解并释放出非植物激素活性产物ABC-OH,而D环的内酯结构与受体蛋白中亲核基团反应形成共价衍生中间体(Covalently linked intermediate molecule, CLIM),并诱导D14发生构象变化,致使其与F-box蛋白D3/MAX2以及抑制因子D53/更多腋窝生长抑制因子家族(D53/SMXLs)结合,随后由26S蛋白酶体泛素化降解D53/SMXLs蛋白复合体来完成SLs调控各种植物反应的生物活性,SLs的D环内酯结构最终转化为非活性水解终产物5-羟基呋喃酮D-OH[57]。

在与D14的结合模式中,丝氨酸(Serine, Ser)97、组氨酸(Histidine, His)247和天冬氨酸(Aspartic acid, Asp)218发挥着重要作用: SLs的C-2'位和C-5'位分别接受Ser97和His247的亲核进攻,使其释放与His247和Ser97共价结合的中间体分子CLIM,产生随后的植物激素反应(图3)[58]。

关于SLs详尽的分子机制,李家洋等2020年发表在Nature的最新研究成果从基因调控及转录因子发掘层面使人类对该类植物激素有了更深入的了解,但仍有许多的未解之谜等待着科学家的探索[2,59⇓ ~61]。

4 天然独脚金内酯的结构特征和分类

迄今为止在植物根系分泌物中已发现超过30种天然的独脚金内酯及其衍生物。图4列举了22种已报道的分子结构,如前所述所有的天然SLs衍生物均含有5-羟基呋喃酮(D环)结构片段,该保守结构在SLs衍生物发挥植物激素活性中具有决定性作用。表1针对上述化合物的主要生物活性、植物来源、作用对象及生物靶点作了归纳总结。值得关注的是,所发现的天然SLs衍生物作为植物激素调控株高、分蘖、叶片形状、根系形态乃至花青素积累等植物发育的整个过程。此外,多个SLs衍生物还发现具有非常有医药开发价值的生物活性,如能有效激活核因子相关因子2(Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, Nrf2),并对核因子激活的B细胞的κ-轻链增强子(Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, NF-κB)具有一定的抑制活性,因此其抗炎和癌症治疗具有较好的应用潜力[16]。

5 人工合成独脚金内酯的结构特征和分类

5.1 典型结构的独脚金内酯类似物

5.1.1 茚满内酯类结构衍生物

GR24是天然独脚金内酯strigol(1)的A环结构以苯环替代后得到的最具代表性的茚满内酯类人工合成类似物(图5)。由于其出色地模拟了天然独脚金内酯SL样的生物活性,已被广泛用于独脚金内酯的各项研究并作为参照化合物。在生理作用和构效关系方面,GR24可以促进寄生杂草种子O. minor萌发,其活性高于5DS(2),与4DO(7)相当[62]。GR24处理的野生型拟南芥、max3-11和max4-1突变体拟南芥,其体内生长素的外排机制发生改变,导致根毛长度增加和侧根密度减少[10]。GR24能抑制拟南芥下胚轴伸长,这与皮质微管组织重塑的光依赖性和动力学变化相关[63]。在拟南芥分枝抑制实验中,GR24对CLA甲基转移酶1/2(CLA methyltransferase 1/2, clamt1/2)突变体具有明显的抑制活性,与MeCLA(16)处理的clamt1/2突变体腋芽分枝抑制效果一致[39]。研究表明,无论天然的还是合成的SLs的立体化学构型对诱导AM真菌菌丝分枝、抑制拟南芥茎分枝、抑制拟南芥下胚轴伸长、抑制水稻分蘖芽生长和刺激寄生杂草种子萌发活性均有较大影响[62,64,65]。在拟南芥中,GR24和5DS(2)的2'R异构体与2'S异构体相比展现出更强的抑制茎分枝活性[62]。在抑制水稻分蘖方面也表现出与拟南芥一致的结果[65]。GR24具有四种立体构型的结构,分别是GR245DS(23)、GR24ent-5DS(24)、GR244DO(25)和GR24ent-4DO(26)。其中,23抑制拟南芥下胚轴伸长、茎分枝和水稻分蘖的活性最好,由于单一构型的GR24分离较为困难,各项研究中使用较多的是GR24消旋体(rac-GR24),其对拟南芥下胚轴伸长抑制活性与天然SLs相当[62,65]。尽管GR24已经在田间试验,可以减少50%寄生杂草种子Striga的数量,但烯醇醚键结构的存在使其稳定性差,这极大地限制了它的进一步发展[66]。

在GR24的基础上对烯醇醚键和D环进行改造,合成了一类新型的独脚金内酯人工合成衍生物。当烯醇醚键被烷氧基(27~30)、亚胺基醚(31)、硫醚(32)或其他基团(33~34)取代后,其诱导AM真菌的菌丝分枝、抑制水稻分蘖、拟南芥分枝以及刺激寄生杂草种子萌发活性显著降低,说明烯醇醚键在维持高效的SL样生物活性中具有重要作用[64⇓⇓⇓~68]。将D环C-4'位去甲基化后(35),其完全丧失了抑制茎分枝的活性[68]。当在D环C-3'位引入甲基后(36),对茎分枝的抑制活性超过了GR24,但它对寄生杂草种子的萌发是不利的[69]。进一步在C-2'位引入甲基后(37),其刺激寄生杂草种子S. hermonthica萌发的活性与GR24相当[70]。此外,D环由内酰胺环替换后(38),其刺激P. aegyptiaca种子萌发的活性在1.0 × 10-5 mol/L浓度下达到与GR24同样的水平[71]。综上所述,大多数针对烯醇醚键和D环的修饰均不利于植物激素活性,进一步证实了烯醇醚键和D环是GR24保持植物激素活性的关键保守结构。

为进一步提高GR24的植物激素效力,科学家们在其结构基础上进行了修饰改造,主要在茚满芳香环(A环)或B环上进行各种取代反应,获得了一大类独脚金内酯人工合成衍生物。A环的结构修饰主要集中在C-7位,该类化合物在SLs衍生物中占比最多,并从中发现了多个具有更高生物活性和潜在开发价值的新型衍生物。Zwanenburg等[72]在A环C-7位引入甲基后得到39,其对S. hermonthica种子的刺激萌发活性降低。Yuan等[73]在A环C-7位进行F取代合成了40,可以显著促进欧亚列当(Orobanche cumana, O. cumana)种子萌发(EC50 = 0.97 × 10-8 mol/L),比GR24的活性强5倍。对SLs受体ShHTL7的结合亲合力(IC50 = 0.189 μmol/L)高于GR24(IC50 = 0.248 μmol/L),有望作为寄生杂草诱杀的有效除草剂。此外,A环C-7位硝基(41)或磺酰胺基(42)取代的结构衍生物也进一步加强了促进种子萌发的活性,在1 mg/L浓度的刺激萌发活性与GR24相比提高了30%[74]。但当硝基还原为氨基并用叔丁氧羰基(t-butyloxy carbonyl, Boc)保护后(43),其在2 × 10-8 mol/L浓度下对S. hermonthica种子的萌发活性达到90%,略低于GR24的萌发活性(100%)[75]。Sugimoto等[76]在A环C-7位进行了羟基取代(44),发现对S. hermonthica种子的萌发活性并没有增效。因此,在A环上引入吸电子基团将有利于提高发芽活性。此外,在B环上引入羟基(45)或乙酰氧基(46)极大地提高了对S. hermonthica和O. ramosa种子的刺激萌发活性,进一步将羟基氧化为羰基后(47)仍具有较好的萌发活性,说明4-OH形成的氢键不是受体中制约分子结合模式的重要因素[77]。

近年来的研究表明,GR24具有抵抗环境胁迫的潜能,有助于提高植物对干旱、盐度、重金属、营养匮乏和热应激等环境条件变化的适应能力,以应对全球气候变化并实现可持续农业发展[78]。例如,GR24可以通过降低镉含量、平衡营养元素、间接消除活性氧(Reactive oxygen species, ROS)保护大麦植株免受氧化损伤,从而有助于降低镉污染的潜在风险[79]。外源施加GR24可以调控植物激素合成和代谢的关键基因D14,最终有效缓解葡萄幼苗的干旱症状[80]。

此外,各种研究揭示了GR24对人类细胞的影响及其在医药健康方面的可能应用,证明了其在细胞凋亡和炎症相关途径中的关键作用[12]。在对人体的生理作用方面,GR24主要表现为糖代谢调控、抗炎和神经保护以及抑制肿瘤增殖三个方面:针对糖代谢调控,GR24通过上调并激活沉默信息调节因子2相关酶1(Silencing information regulator 2 related enzyme 1, SIRT1),增强胰岛素信号、葡萄糖摄取、葡萄糖转运蛋白4(Glucose transporter type 4, GLUT4)转位和骨骼肌细胞线粒体生物生成,成为一种治疗骨骼肌胰岛素抵抗(II型糖尿病病因)的新方法[81]。同时,GR24促进胰岛素抵抗性骨骼肌细胞中蛋白激酶B(Protein kinase B, PKB/AKT)的激活,并下调了磷酸烯醇丙酮酸羧化激酶(Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, PEPCK)和葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶(Glucose-6-phosphatase, G6Pase)的表达,控制肝细胞中糖异生的限速步骤。

在预防和治疗炎症方面,GR24通过阻断NF-κB和丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(Mitogen-activated protein kinases, MAPK)信号通路,对炎症细胞因子的释放表现出强烈的抑制活性,包括一氧化氮(Nitric oxide, NO)、肿瘤坏死因子-α(Tumour necrosis factor alpha, TNF-α)和白介素-6(Interleukin 6, IL-6)。同时,GR24能显著抑制荧光蛋白标记的斑马鱼幼虫中中性粒细胞和巨噬细胞的迁移,发挥良好的抗炎作用,并发现了烯醇醚桥和D环结构的绝对构型对抗炎活性是必不可少的[82]。Kulabas等[83]的进一步机理研究表明,GR24处理可诱导还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸醌脱氢酶-1(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate quinone oxidoreductase 1, NQO1)和血红素加氧酶-1(Heme oxygenase-1, HO-1)的表达增加,通过干扰Kelch样环氧氯丙烷关联蛋白质1(Recombinant Kelch like ECH associated protein 1, Keap1)重组蛋白和Nrf2的结合而发挥其抗炎活性。此外,GR24可抑制NO的产生,抑制脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharide, LPS)诱导的诱导型一氧化氮合酶(Inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS)在mRNA和蛋白水平的表达,显著减少IL-1β的释放,环氧合酶2(Cyclooxygenase, COX-2)和IL-1β的mRNA表达,以及NF-κB在细胞核内的积累。在神经保护方面,由GR24处理的SIM-A9小胶质细胞系中,同样观察到LPS诱导的NO产生减少,mRNA和iNOS水平均以剂量依赖性方式显著降低,TNF-α和IL-1β的产生受到抑制,表明GR24具有潜在的抗神经炎症和神经保护作用,对神经退行性疾病和阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)的早期治疗开辟了新的途径[84]。

在抗肿瘤方面,GR24通过将细胞周期抑制在G2/M期诱导乳腺癌细胞凋亡和DNA损伤,抑制乳腺癌MCF-7细胞系的生长(IC50 = 18.8 μmol/L),而对正常细胞的生长和增殖几乎不产生影响,具有潜在的抗肿瘤作用。这种作用与诱导p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(P38 MAPK)和Jun氨基末端激酶1/2(Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2, JNK1/2)介导的应激反应的激活和抑制磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases, PI3K)/AKT信号通路有关[85]。此外,GR24在体内和体外均抑制血管生成,这涉及细胞骨架重组、抑制血管内皮生长因子2(Vascular endothelial growth factor 2, VEGFR2)磷酸化以及抑制下游黏附斑激酶(Focal adhesion kinase, FAK)的激活有关[86]。尽管GR24的抗肿瘤效力取得了这些进展,但在IC50方面仍有很大的进步空间。研究发现,抑制自噬是提高现有癌症医治疗效的一种很有前途的策略[87]。Deng等[88]通过A环C-6、C-7和D环C-3'取代及改变B环的大小合成了36种新型GR24类似物,鉴定出类似物48对结直肠癌细胞HCT116具有很强的细胞毒性,并选择性地增加自噬通量,同时阻断自噬小体-溶酶体融合,被确认为是一种有效的自噬/线粒体抑制剂,通过抑制自噬而发挥有效的抗结直肠癌作用(IC50 = 0.68 nmol/L)。首次总结了GR24药理药效的构效关系:A环C-6、C-7取代有利于增强抗肿瘤活性,C-6位Br或NHBoc的取代显著地增加活性,游离的氨基和B环的扩增对增强活性无益,D环C-3'位置引入甲基可增强活性,C-2'位置的R构型比相应的S构型更有利。

图6分别展示了GR24与信号传导基因拟南芥D14受体、哺乳动物应激活化蛋白激酶JNK1、一氧化氮合成酶iNOS以及Kelch样环氧氯丙烷关联蛋白Keap1的蛋白-配体复合物三维结构和相应的分子作用模式。

5.1.2 内酰胺类衍生物

内酰胺类衍生物(Strigolactam)是独脚金内酯C环的内酯结构以γ-内酰胺环替换形成的一类衍生物(图7)。由NH替换GR24内酯环的O-1原子得到了独脚金内酰胺衍生物49,其诱导寄生杂草种子O.cumana萌发的活性与GR24相比提高了68%(1×10-4 mg/L)[89]。C-2'S构型的内酰胺类衍生物50对O.cumana种子基本没有活性,但对O.minor种子的萌发活性与49(49: 57.17%, 50: 41.67%, 1 μmol/L)一致,均高于rac-GR24(30.26%, 1 μmol/L),这表明O.cumana种子对内酰胺衍生物的立体构型具有非常高的敏感性[89,90]。此外,内酰胺环的N原子上进行取代衍生化可以合成出一系列结构新颖的内酰胺类衍生物,进一步N-甲基化后的衍生物51对O.cumana种子的萌发也非常有效,但活性略低于49[89]。先正达公司在内酰胺环的N原子上进行苯基(52)、4-氯-苯基(53)、乙酰基(54)或2-噻唑基(55)等取代后,获得了一批具有较高促进向日葵列当种子萌发活性的N-衍生化类似物,在0.001 mg/L浓度下对向日葵列当种子的萌发活性均高于GR24[91]。

改变内酰胺类衍生物C环与B环的结合位置,得到第二代内酰胺类衍生物56,其在1.0×10-9 mol/L浓度下,对瓜列当(Orobanche aegyptiaca, O. aegyptiaca)种子的萌发活性(33.9%)与GR24(34.7%)相当。当在A环C-6位进行不同基团取代后,对O. aegyptiaca种子的刺激萌发活性增强,如甲基(57)、甲氧基(58)、乙氧基(59)和苄氧基(60)取代后的萌发活性均优于未取代的56,尤其是甲氧基(58)取代后萌发率达到73.4%[92]。同样第二代strigolactam的N-衍生化可以获得活性较好的促进叶片衰老的化合物,如化合物61~66在玉米叶的暗诱导衰老试验中,通过0.0001~100 μmol/L浓度梯度测试和叶片图像分析,测量叶片衰老褐变的面积占总叶片面积的比例,计算出50%衰老的浓度(IC50 ≤ 1.55 μmol/L)比第一代的strigolactam衍生物(IC50 ≥ 2.47 μmol/L)更低,显示出优越的促进叶片衰老的活性,并且D环的C-3'位甲基化进一步增强了促进叶片衰老的效力[93]。

5.1.3 环戊烯酮类衍生物

环戊烯酮类衍生物是独脚金内酯C环结构中引入不饱和双键共轭体系的一类衍生物。目前发表的代表性结构包括67~75号化合物(图8)。Venturello等[94]最早报道了环戊烯酮类衍生物67~70,它们促进O. aegyptiaca种子萌发的活性(EC50 ≤ 1.73×10-8 mol/L)优于GR24(EC50 = 2.15×10-7 mol/L),因此受到了科研工作者的关注。Prandi等[95]设计并合成了一系列环戊烯酮类非对映异构体,发现71和72(MEB55)具有理想的促进瓜列当(Phelipanche aegyptiaca, P. aegyptiaca)种子萌发的活性。在诱导球状巨孢囊霉(Gigaspora margarita, G. margarita)真菌菌丝分枝和促进拟南芥根毛生长方面,71的活性与GR24相当。带荧光基团的环戊烯酮类衍生物73和75同样具有良好的促进P. aegyptiaca种子萌发和诱导G. margarita真菌菌丝分枝的活性,可以为进一步研究植物和真菌中受体的定位及分子机制提供有价值的工具[96,97]。研究发现,72和74具有良好的抗肿瘤活性,通过诱导DNA损伤和抑制DNA修复,触发细胞凋亡并与聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶(poly (adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase, PARP)抑制剂具有很好的协同抑制肿瘤的活性[98]。此外,进一步的分子机制研究表明72和74对癌细胞的抑制作用是通过激活与应激相关的MAPKs:p38和JNK通路和相关基因,特异性诱导肿瘤细胞的G2/M细胞周期阻滞和细胞凋亡从而对前列腺癌(LNCaP细胞, IC50 = 5 μmol/L)和乳腺癌(MDA-MB-231细胞, IC50 = 5.8 μmol/L)表现出较好的抗癌活性[85,99,100]。在胶质母细胞中71在低浓度下可以抑制癌细胞增殖(IC50 ≤ 17.5 μmol/L),诱导细胞凋亡,并诱导G1细胞周期阻滞,是一种潜在的抗胶质母细胞瘤先导化合物[101]。图9是72与相应的抗肿瘤生物靶点P38 MAPK和JNK1的复合物结构及结合模式。

5.2 非典型结构的独脚金内酯类似物

5.2.1 芳基呋喃酮醚类

为克服天然SLs中手性中心多、人工难合成的科学难题,科研工作者相继设计与制备了一系列以单纯的芳基结构代替ABC骨架的独脚金内酯类似物,称为SL mimics。图10列举了该类衍生物的代表性结构,苯环上不同的取代基团将导致其SL样生物活性的差异。Asami等[102]在苯环的对位进行卤素(F、Cl、Br、I)或氰基(CN)取代发现,当对位为溴取代时(76),在较低的浓度(0.1 μmol/L)下对d10-1突变水稻第二分蘖芽的生长有明显的抑制作用,且通过激活SL信号转导途径来抑制分蘖芽的生长,但对促进S. hermonthica种子萌发的活性不理想。改变苯环上的取代基和取代位置,得到氯苯基化合物77,其促进S. hermonthica种子萌发的活性显著提高[103]。在苯环上含有供电子基(如甲基)和一个额外的羟基,对S. hermonthica种子萌发活性有一定提高(EC50 ≈ 2×10-7 mol/L),但仍比GR24低几个数量级(EC50 = 1.30 ×10-10 mol/L)。在促进根毛生长的活性中,化合物78的作用比GR24更强烈[104]。当甲基在邻位时(79),其抑制水稻第二分蘖芽的长的活性与GR24相当,对S. hermonthica种子的萌发的活性也优于其他邻位取代化合物[105]。Yan等[106]在苯环上引入不同的吸电子基团(CN、NO2和CF3),并在1、3和4位不同的位置进行取代,获得的2NOD(80)具有较好的促进O. cumana种子萌发的活性,且能显著抑制拟南芥下胚轴的伸长和促进根毛的生长(图10)。该系列化合物D环的甲基由氢取代后(81~82),仍具有较好的抑制水稻分蘖的活性,说明甲基可能不是SL活性所必需的[107]。另外,在抗癌活性方面83表现出剂量和作用时间依赖性的肝癌HepG2细胞抑制活性(IC50 = 85.85 μmol/L)[108]。图11是Yan等揭示的2NOD与独脚金内酯经典受体AtD14和ShHTL7蛋白的复合结构及其结合模式。

5.2.2 呋喃酮酯类

呋喃酮酯类是将独脚金内酯天然产物中D环活性呋喃酮部分结构与烷基羧酸以酯键相连的一类化合物,如图10中84~88所示。肉桂酸(Cinnamic acid, CA)是一类广泛存在于植物中的苯丙烯酸类天然产物,具有顺式和反式两种构型。将CA与D环连接的反式SLs类似物84显示出较理想的促进O. minor和S. hermonthica种子萌发的活性,其顺式CA衍生物比反式的强10倍左右。在抑制拟南芥max4突变体分枝实验中,顺式衍生物比反式CA衍生的类似物能够更有效地直接与SL受体蛋白相互作用,促进拟南芥幼苗的生长[109]。具有类似结构的85对S. hermonthica种子的萌发活性与GR24相当,但它在土壤中的稳定性比GR24差很多,极大地限制了其进一步开发利用[110]。Zwanenburg等[111]将生长素与D环偶联得到86,它对P. ramosa种子的萌发活性也达到与GR24同样的水平。使用虚拟筛选和合理性结构优化策略发现的87能有效诱导P. aegyptiaca(EC50 = 3.39 ×10-11 mol/L))和S. hermonthica(EC50 = 1.3 ×10-17 mol/L))种子的萌发,并优于rac-GR24(EC50 = 4.85 ×10-11 mol/L)[61]。化合物88(Sphynolactone-7)是一种源于化学筛选的SLs类似物,可以高效地结合独脚金内酯受体ShHTL7并在fM浓度范围内刺激S. hermonthica萌发,能作为一种选择性Striga的自杀萌发诱导刺激剂[112]。

5.2.3 环戊烷并内酯及内酰胺类

环戊烷并内酯及内酰胺类是将天然独脚金内酯A、B环结构简化为环戊烷或环戊烯的一类人工合成类似物。Zwanenburg等[113]合成了四种立体异构的环戊烷并内酯类化合物(图12),化合物89(GR7)促进寄生杂草种子萌发的活性最强,与GR24的构型保持一致。de Mesmaeker等[114]改变B环不饱和键位置和合成内酰胺环得到90(GR28)和91。化合物90促进O. cumana种子萌发的活性达到90%(0.1 mg/L),且C-2'S具有同样的活性,B环的双键饱和以后的92仍然保持活性。内酰胺环类似物93促进O. cumana种子萌发的活性降低或基本没有活性,在酰胺的N上衍生乙酰基(94)或B环上衍生乙酰氧基(95)后活性反而大幅提升。

5.2.4 其他类

Nijmegen-1(96)是保留生物活性并结构简化的SL类似物(图13),于1997年被合成报道,研究发现其对Striga类和锯齿列当(Orobanche crenata, O. crenata)种子具有较强的刺激萌发活性[115]。在实验室和田间96具有很好的Striga萌发诱捕活性,珍珠小米和高粱田里Striga的出现分别减少了43%和60%[116]。Striga的出苗率在1.0 μmol/L的浓度达到89%~99%,为将自杀式萌发诱捕寄生杂草Striga策略纳入非洲可持续农业管理铺平了道路[117]。化合物96与信号传导基因拟南芥D14受体和寄生杂草种子萌发的生物靶点ShHTL7的分子作用机制及复合物结构如图14所示。将D环直接与双酮结构上的N原子相连获得97,与98一样,都表现出有效的刺激P. aegyptiaca(97, EC50 = 1.72 × 10-6 mol/L)和P. ramose(98, EC50 = 5.2 × 10-10 mol/L)种子发芽活性,尽管均弱于GR24[118,119]。改变SL mimics的苯环结构,由环状羟基酮衍生的99和100具有较好的促进寄生杂草种子萌发和抑制植物病原真菌的活性[120]。此外,由四氢萘酮衍生的SL类似物101显示出比GR24更强的刺激S. hermonthica和O. crenata种子萌发活性[121]。

Methyl phenlactonoates(MPs)的结构类似于天然的非典型结构的MeCLA(16),是根系寄生杂草种子萌发的有效诱导剂(图13)。其中,102(EC50 = 2.98 ×10-9 mol/L)和103(EC50 = 2.54 ×10-8 mol/L)抑制d10突变体水稻分蘖的活性显著高于GR24(EC50 = 4.83 ×10-2 mol/L),并且102加速了黑暗环境下水稻叶片的衰老,显著抑制了拟南芥下胚轴的伸长。该活性结果与ShHTL7和OsD14水解MPs的结果一致,且氯原子(104)和硝基(105)吸电子基团的引入加速了水解过程,105促进S. hermonthica种子萌发的活性最强(EC50 = 1.5 ×10-9 mol/L),但弱于GR24(EC50 = 9.1 ×10-11 mol/L)[122]。尽管102和105抑制了AM真菌G. margarita孢子的萌发,但对后期的菌根定植具有积极的促进作用[123]。甲酯及与甲酯相连的基团对刺激萌发活性有显著影响,将酯基替换为N,N-二甲基酰胺后(109),其对S. hermonthica种子的刺激萌发活性(EC50 = 1.05 ×10-10 mol/L)与GR24(EC50 = 7.23 ×10-11 mol/L)相当,并显著增强对水稻叶片的加速衰老作用。将酯基上的甲基替换为苯基、苄基和叔丁基后(106~108),其刺激P. aegyptiaca萌发的活性也显著增强[124]。研究还发现,化合物102~104可以降低HepG2细胞活力,并诱导细胞凋亡,通过靶向微管对癌细胞发挥选择性抑制作用[108]。从大麻中分泌的非典型结构的Cannalactone(21)具有促进寄生杂草P. ramosa种子萌发的作用[47]。Boyer等[47]设计并合成了两种类型的Cannalactone类似物,并对两种P. ramosa种子(1/2a)进行萌发活性测试。所有Cannalactone类似物对P. ramosa 1种子的萌发活性均弱于GR24,但110(EC50 = 5.6 ×10-10 mol/L)和111对P. ramosa 2a种子的萌发活性明显高于GR24。此外,由倍半萜香豆素醚三兰酮衍生而成的Strigoterpenoid(112)能有效激活Nrf2通路(EC50 = 1.2 ± 0.03 μmol/L),且能以较低的浓度(IC50 = 7.9 μmol/L)抑制NF-κB通路[16]。

6 结论与展望

SLs是一类由类胡萝卜素衍生而来的新型植物激素,被认为是植物生长调节的关键信号分子。随着分离和识别技术的发展,未来将会有更多的SLs被分离和鉴定出来。从植物根系分泌物中分离的天然的SLs和合成的SLs类似物具有刺激寄生杂草种子萌发、抑制植物分枝、诱导AM真菌菌丝分枝和促进植物根毛生长等广泛的植物激素活性,其中烯醇醚和D环以及C-2'R构型是其保持生物活性的高度保守结构。通过自杀式萌发诱捕寄生杂草、促进AM真菌菌丝分枝和调节干旱及盐度胁迫等在农业上具有巨大的应用潜力,将极大地减少因寄生杂草泛滥而导致每年在全球范围内数十亿美元的经济损失[125]。化合物96能在田间成功管理O. ramosa和Striga,但低成本、高稳定性和高活性的SLs分子有待进一步开发[116]。在设计SLs分子时,应选择性地考虑靶标及其与生物学功能的相关性,降低对作物正常生长的影响,充分发挥绿色农业的特点[126]。

此外,SLs在抗癌和抗炎方面也表现出显著的生物活性,通过阻滞细胞周期在G2/M期,诱导细胞凋亡和DNA损伤发挥抗癌作用,通过抑制炎症相关因子(NO、TNF-α、IL-6、ROS)发挥抗炎和神经保护作用。但大多数简化的SLs在IC50方面的效力都很低,有待进一步阐明其作用机制和结构优化,为其在医学健康领域的应用铺平道路。本课题组现有的研究表明,在GR24的A环C-7位衍生化将改变其生物活性,带有吸电子的取代基将进一步增强其植物激素的活性,但其抗肿瘤方面的活性并没有显著提高。随着合理性药物设计和人工智能在药物研究中的应用,相信越来越多的SLs类似物将被设计并合成出来,为可持续农业发展和人类健康助力。

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国家重点研发计划项目(2020YFA0907903)

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