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The Cocatalyst in Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

Junlan Guo , Yinghua Liang , Huan Wang , Li Liu , Wenquan Cui

Progress in Chemistry ›› 2021, Vol. 33 ›› Issue (7) : 1100 -1114.

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Progress in Chemistry ›› 2021, Vol. 33 ›› Issue (7) : 1100-1114 DOI: 10.7536/PC200803
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The Cocatalyst in Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution
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Abstract

Nowadays, development of a sustainable, green, new and efficient energy system has drawn much attention with the increasingly prominent energy and environmental problems. Photocatalytic production of H2 utilizing solar energy appears to be a promising strategy to solve the energy issues since it is clean, low-cost, and environmentally friendly. It is difficult for single semiconductor photocatalyst to meet all the requirements of photocatalysis because of its low utilization efficiency of light, fast recombination rate of electron-hole pairs, and insufficient active sites. Cocatalysts are often used to improve the photocatalytic activity. The loading of cocatalyst could facilitate charge separation and enhance the photocatalytic efficiency. In this review, we mainly outline the roles of cocatalysts in photocatalytic hydrogen production, such as enhancing light absorption, promoting charge separation, increasing active sites, and improving the ability of H adsorption, and introduce the loading method of cocatalysts. Moreover, the influencing factors of cocatalysts on activity, including size effect, position effect, configuration effect and quantity quantal effect are summarized, which sheds light on designing efficient and stable cocatalysts, and the concluding perspectives on future development of cocatalysts for photocatalytic hydrogen production are also presented.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 The category of cocatalyst

2.1 Metal-based cocatalyst

2.2 Metal-free cocatalyst

2.3 Multicomponent cocatalyst

3 The loading method of cocatalyst on photocatalyst

4 the effect of The cocatalyst on photocatalytic hydrogen evolution

4.1 Size effect

4.2 Location effect

4.3 Configuration effect

4.4 Quantal effect

4.5 Others

5 Conclusion and outlook

Graphical abstract

Keywords

photocatalytic / H2 evolution / cocatalyst / catalytic activity

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Junlan Guo, Yinghua Liang, Huan Wang, Li Liu, Wenquan Cui. The Cocatalyst in Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution. Progress in Chemistry, 2021, 33(7): 1100-1114 DOI:10.7536/PC200803

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1 Introduction

With the development of industry, the problems of energy shortage and environmental pollution have become very prominent, and photocatalytic hydrogen production technology has become one of the hot spots to solve the energy problem. The process of photocatalytic hydrogen production is mainly divided into: (1) light absorption to produce photogenerated charges and holes, (2) charge-hole transport, separation and recombination, and (3) catalytic reaction. The photocatalyst generates electron and hole pairs by photoinduction, and in the water decomposition reaction, the electron and the hole act as a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent to generate H2 and O2, respectively, as shown in fig. 1. There are two reaction pathways for hydrogen proton to generate hydrogen, Volmer-Tafel and Volmer-Heyrovsky, which are recognized by academia (Figure 2)[1]. The total reaction process is that two protons react with two electrons to form a hydrogen molecule. In the Volmer step, protons receive electrons from the surface of the photocatalyst and are then adsorbed to the surface of the catalyst (H++e-→H*),H* representing H protons adsorbed on the surface of catalyst. In the Volmer-Tafel reaction mechanism, two identical reducing protons meet on the surface of the catalyst and react to form a hydrogen molecule, the Tafel step (H*+H*→H2). In the Volmer-Heyrovsky reaction mechanism, the next step is the Heyrovsky step, in which the reducing proton adsorbed on the catalyst surface reacts with an H proton and an electron to form a hydrogen molecule. Gibbs free energy Δ G H * of the H* relative to the H2 of the product (Δ G H *= G H * -0.5 G H 2) with the hydrogen generation activity in a volcanic curve,Which peaks at about Δ G H * = 0. A large negative value of Δ G H * implies a strong binding force of H protons to the catalyst, which is energetically unfavorable for Tafel or Heyrovsky processes. A large positive value of Δ G H * indicates a weak binding force between H and the catalyst, which is not conducive to the occurrence of the Volmer process. The closer the value of the delta G H * is to 0, the more favorable it is to generate the H2.
Photocatalytic performance depends largely on the efficiency of the three consecutive steps mentioned above, namely, the generation of charge-hole by photoexcitation, the transfer, transfer and recombination of charge-hole, and the redox reaction on the surface of the catalyst. Most semiconductors can not produce high hydrogen evolution activity without a promoter, even in the presence of a sacrificial agent, because a single semiconductor catalyst is difficult to meet all the requirements of photocatalysis. For example, the common semiconductor TiO2 in photocatalysis needs ultraviolet light to be excited, and the proportion of ultraviolet light in sunlight is very small, only 5%, which limits its universality in photocatalysis[2]. In addition, the recombination rate of photoinduced electrons and holes on the catalyst surface is very fast (10-12~10-11s), while the capture rate of charge carriers on the catalyst surface and the interfacial charge transfer rate are relatively slow (10-7~10-9s)[3,4]. Therefore, inhibition of charge-hole recombination and promotion of charge transfer to the surface of the catalyst are essential to improve surface charge carrier kinetics and photocatalytic activity. Moreover, the low activation ability of the semiconductor surface is also one of the key factors limiting the photocatalytic activity, and the electrons transferred to the semiconductor surface must be consumed by the reduction reaction. The difficulty of this process is how to make the surface active sites more abundant, so as to better promote the catalytic reaction and improve the utilization of photogenerated charges. However, the semiconductor surface usually does not have highly active reduction sites, which limits the catalytic activity of the catalyst[5]. Co-catalysts are often introduced to solve these problems, and the functional diversity of co-catalysts can effectively promote the catalytic activity. Metals such as Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt, Au and Ag are promoters that can effectively enhance the catalytic activity for hydrogen production[6][7][8][9][10][11]. Among them, the noble metal Pt has a very low overpotential, which can promote the surface catalytic reaction. The Pt nanoparticles prepared by high-temperature reduction method have a strong interaction between the g-C3N4 and Pt, which promotes the directional migration of photogenerated charges and enhances the separation efficiency of photogenerated charges[12]. Non-noble metals play a similar role as noble metals in improving the efficiency of photogenerated charge separation and photocatalytic activity. The photoreduced Ni particles were distributed on the S-doped C3N4, and the quantum efficiency was 12. 26% under 400 nm light, which was 3. 45 times and 2. 21 times of that of the C3N4 and the S-C3N4, respectively[13]. When the nanocubes of Au and Pd were loaded on the TiO2 nanosheets, the hot electrons generated by the Au plasmon effect could transfer from the TiO2 to Pd, which made the TiO2 show hydrogen-producing activity at λ > 780 nm, while the TiO2 alone had no activity at λ > 780 nm[2]. In addition, phosphides such as Fe2P and Ni2P in the metal complex can act as H adsorption sites to increase the yield of H2[14][15]. As a cocatalyst, hydrogenase can effectively catalyze the reduction of protons to molecular hydrogen. When combined with inorganic semiconductors, it can transfer electrons from semiconductors to hydrogenase and reduce protons to H2[16]. In addition to achieving excellent photocatalytic activity, the cocatalyst can also inhibit the photocorrosion phenomenon to enhance the stability of the semiconductor photocatalyst[17].

2 Classification of promoters

According to the element composition, the promoter can be divided into metal-based promoter and non-metal-based promoter. Metal-based promoters are classified as metal promoters, metal complexes, metal-organic frameworks (MOF) and their derivatives. Non-metal-based promoters mainly include various carbon-containing materials, such as carbon quantum dots and graphene. According to the function of the promoter, it can be divided into the reduction-type promoter that traps electrons and the oxidation-type promoter that traps holes. The functions of the cocatalyst in photocatalytic hydrogen production mainly include the following aspects, as shown in Figure 3. The cocatalyst can enhance the absorption of light, promote charge transfer, and act as an active site to increase the adsorption of reactants and reduce the potential of hydrogen generation. In addition, the cocatalyst can also inhibit the photocorrosion of part of the photocatalyst and improve the stability of the photocatalyst.

2.1 Metal-based promoter

2.1.1 Metal promoter

Metal promoters can be divided into single metal promoters, metal alloy promoters and metal nanoclusters. Au and Ag are common plasmon metals used in photocatalysis to enhance light absorption, and the combination of plasmon metals with semiconductors provides an opportunity to extend light absorption to longer wavelengths[18][19,20]. After the surface of P25 was modified by Ag nanoparticles, the light absorption properties of the catalyst were changed, and the activity under visible light was improved[21]. In the photocatalyst containing plasma, because the work function of the plasma metal is larger than that of the semiconductor, the existence of a Schottky junction between the plasma and the semiconductor can prevent electrons injected into the plasma metal from flowing back to the semiconductor, inhibit the recombination of charge-holes, and prolong the lifetime of high-energy electrons. High energy hot electrons can promote the development of many high activation energy reactions. Li can et al. Found that the holes induced by Au plasma coupling accumulated at the Au/TiO2 interface, which could accelerate the water oxidation reaction at the interface reaction site and significantly improve the photocatalytic activity[22]. In addition, the light absorption range of the plasmon metal is related to its morphology, thereby affecting the photocatalytic activity, and the light response range can be extended to the near-infrared region by adjusting the morphology of the plasmon metal[2][19].
In addition to plasmon metals, other metal promoters have good electron trapping properties, such as Pt, Au, Ag, Pd, Cu, Ni, etc[23][24][25][26⇓~28][29,30][31][32⇓⇓~35]. The Schottky junction formed by the combination of metal and semiconductor helps to separate electrons and accelerate the kinetics of photocatalytic reaction. The height of the Schottky junction is defined by the difference between the metal work function and the electron affinity on the semiconductor conduction band[36]. Different metals have different work functions. A larger work function means a higher Fermi level (relative to the vacuum level), which makes it easier to capture electrons from the conduction band of semiconductors. Table 1 lists the work function values of different metals[37]. The ability of different metals to capture electrons also affects the balance of metal-semiconductor Fermi levels. Wood et al. monitored the process of Fermi level balance in ZnO quantum dots-metal (Au, Ag, Cu, Pt) nanojunctions. Because different metals have different abilities to capture electrons, in the case of Au, Ag, Cu combined with ZnO, excess electrons accumulate on ZnO quantum dots and metals, while for Pt-ZnO, excess electrons only exist on Pt, and electrons can be quickly transferred from Pt to the solvent to better promote the reaction[38].
The metal promoter may also act as an active site for the generation of hydrogen[39,40]. Tanaka et al. combine Au and different metals on that TiO2, and the activity of the metal (M) is inversely proportional to the overvoltage unde visible light, indicating that the metals in the Au/TiO2-M are all sites of H+ reduction (H2 formation), and the activity ord is Pt > Pd > Ru > Rh > Au > Ag > Cu > Ir[41]. Va et al. Deposited 5 nm Ni nanoparticles into S-doped C3N4 by photoreduction method. ESR experiment monitored more H radicals in the sample containing Ni promoter. This is because the transferred electrons are gathered on the metal Ni nanoparticles, and the H+ in water can easily obtain electrons on the metal Ni to form H radicals, and finally form H2[33].
Due to its small size, large specific surface area and high dispersion, the metal promoter can reduce the overpotential of H2 formation and produce high catalytic efficiency. For example, 5 nm Co particles photodeposited into CdS as a promoter exhibit lower overpotential values than CdS due to the lower energy barrier of Co/CdS compared to CdS[42]. The overpotential of hydrogen generation in the system of MOF-5 with 9 nm metal Ni particles supported on MOF-5 and EY as photosensitizer was-0. 37 V, which was significantly lower than that in the system of EY-MOF-5[34]. In addition, the combination of cheap metal salts and semiconductor quantum dots has also become a convenient way to construct efficient photocatalytic hydrogen production systems[43⇓~45]. Wu et al. Used CdS quantum dots combined with Ni2+ for photocatalytic hydrogen production, and studied the change of catalytic site structure[44]. It was found that the precursor of Ni was transformed into Ni(OH)2 in neutral water and finally into Ni(OH)2 nanosheets in alkaline medium. DFT calculations show that the Ni vacancies on the surface of the Ni(OH)2 enhance the adsorption and dissociation of hydrogen and oxygen molecules, thus increasing the local proton concentration, while the Ni clusters act as hydrogen release sites, thus synergistically promoting the activity of photocatalytic H2 formation in alkaline media, which provides a new way to study the structural changes of catalytic sites in the photocatalytic H2 formation system.

2.1.2 Monatomic cocatalyst

In the metal promoter system, only the surface active center atoms participate in the reaction. In order to improve the atom utilization, it is an effective method to reduce the metal to clusters or even single atoms to maximize the atom utilization. Thus, monatomic promoters are of interest, and their advantages are shown in fig. 4. Although the catalytic efficiency of monatomic catalysts is relatively high, further optimization is needed to alleviate the problem of aggregation or coarsening of monatomic particles during the catalytic reaction, and the interaction between monatomic and supported catalysts is essential for stabilizing monatomic particles[46]. In many semiconductors, the N/C coordination framework formed by the unique triazine structure in g-C3N4 provides favorable conditions for the incorporation or insertion of foreign atoms. Li et al anchored a single Pt atom on the g-C3N4, and the activity was 8.6 times higher than that of Pt nanoparticles based on each Pt atom. HAADF-STEM after reaction showed that Pt remained on the C3N4 in the form of a single atom, which proved the stability of the catalyst[47]. When the content of Pt is more than 0.38%, Pt nanoclusters are formed, and the catalytic activity is obviously reduced, which proves the superiority of Pt monoatom in the reaction.
Various nitrogen-containing functional groups, such as pyridine nitrogen, pyrrole nitrogen, graphite nitrogen and quaternary nitrogen, can provide abundant coordination sites for binding metal atoms, and N-doped graphene is often used as a matrix for anchoring metal atoms[48⇓~50]. Zhao et al synthesized a single Ni atom and anchored it on the vacancy of N-doped graphene as a co-catalyst (Ni-NG/CdS), which was combined with CdS for hydrogen production under visible light. DFT calculation showed that there were multiple hydrogen adsorption sites in the catalyst. Compared with N-doped graphene, the Δ G H * could be reduced from -2.32 eV to 0.07 eV, which significantly reduced the activation energy barrier of hydrogen evolution reaction[49]. In addition, the characterization of fluorescence, photocurrent and impedance showed that the resistance of electron transfer in monatomic promoter was much smaller than that in crystalline promoter, which was conducive to the improvement of activity[50].

2.1.3 Metal complex promoter

Metal compounds include metal oxides, metal sulfides, metal hydroxides, metal phosphides, metal nitrides, metal carbides, and hydrogenases. According to its function, it can be divided into reduction-type cocatalyst and oxidation-type cocatalyst, and has the function of adsorbing H (Fig. 5). Metal oxides include Co(OH)2, Ni(HCO3)2, MoOx, Ni(OH)2, etc.Metal carbides have Ni3C and WC1-x, and metal nitrides have Ni3N[51][52][53][54,55][56][57][58]. Transition metal oxides MOx(M=Pd,Co,Mn,Ni, and Cu) are common oxidation promoters[59,60]. The content of promoter is different, and the role it plays is also different. When the content is low, it acts as a promoter, and when the content is high, it forms a composite structure with the photocatalyst, and the synergistic effect of the two promotes the generation of hydrogen, such as CoO and Cu3P[61][62].
Metal sulfides include MoS2, WS2, CuS, and NiS[63,64][65][66][67⇓~69]. The unsaturated S atom acts as an effective active center to rapidly capture the H+ from the reaction system, and then promotes the direct reduction of the H+ by the photogenerated electrons[70]. Typically, the activity of the MoS2 is caused only by the active S atoms at the exposed edge, while the S atoms at the basal plane are not active. Therefore, a MoS2 with more exposed edges and active S atoms is considered to have higher activity. Chang et al combined single-layer MoS2 with CdS, the MoS2 with fewer layers has more exposed edges, has a large number of unsaturated S atoms, and is more matched with the band gap of CdS, and the activity increases with the decrease of the number of MoS2 layers[71].
Metal phosphides include MoP, MoP4, NixP, CoPx, CoxP, etc[72][73][74,75][77][77]. Li et al. Compounded CoP nanodots with C3N4, and their unique P(δ-)-Co(δ+)-N(δ-) surface bonding state improved the release activity of H2[78]. P(δ-)-Co(δ+) bonds favor the formation of high electron density Co-hydrides and protonated P(δ-) side chain moieties, allowing the adjacent Co and P atoms to act as diproton adsorption sites for synergistic effects.Charge-transfer and reaction mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 6. FexP and Ni2P also act as diproton adsorption sites[79][80].
Hydrogenase is also used in photocatalysis as an effective cocatalyst. Hydrogenase is a general term for a class of metalloenzymes, which can convert hydrogen to protons or protons to hydrogen. The catalytic reaction takes place on the iron atom of the hydrogenase. The iron atom in the active site can increase the acidity of hydrogen and eventually lead to molecular fragmentation in the presence of an external base. The reverse reaction also takes place on the iron center. Under acidic conditions, protons are oxidized to hydrogen by electrons. According to the different kinds of metal ions in the catalytic center, it can be divided into three categories: nickel-iron hydrogenase, iron-iron hydrogenase and iron hydrogenase[81]. Hydrogenases can be used as cocatalysts in combination with semiconductors for photocatalytic hydrogen production[82,83]. Brown et al. Studied the self-assembly, charge transfer kinetics, and photocatalytic properties of a hybrid complex composed of [FeFe] -hydrogenase (CaI) from Clostridium acetobutylicum and 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) capped CdTe nanocrystals[82]. The molecular assembly of CdTe and CaI is mediated by electrostatic interaction and is used for the formation reaction of photocatalytic H2 with ascorbic acid as a hole scavenger under visible light irradiation. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra confirmed the rapid photoexcited electron transfer from CdTe to CaI in the complex. The quantum efficiency of the CdTe-CaI complex was 9% at 523 nm, and the amount of H2 was 25 mol/mol CaI/s. On this basis, Brown et al. Used CaI as a hydrogen evolution promoter, combined with MPA-capped CdS nanorods for photocatalytic hydrogen production[83]. The H2 yield of the CdS nanorods/CaI composite catalyst is 380-900 mol/mol CaI/s under the illumination of 405 nm, and the quantum efficiency is as high as 20%. After 4 H of reaction, the catalyst was deactivated due to the oxidation of the holes excited by CdS light.
Inspired by the extremely high activity of hydrogenase, many research groups have devoted themselves to the development of small organometallic molecular catalysts that mimic the catalytic center of hydrogenase. These artificial catalysts are called enzyme mimics. Several mimetics have been developed, which are coordination compounds of Fe, Co, or Ni[84]. Among them, binuclear [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimics and Co complexes are considered to be highly active cocatalysts in combination with semiconductors for photocatalytic H2 release[85⇓⇓⇓~89]. For example, Hola et al. used aspartyl carbon quantum dots as photosensitizers to drive [FeFe] -hydrogenase to catalyze hydrogen evolution, LED lamp as light source and TEOA as electron donor, which showed good photocatalytic activity and stability for hydrogen evolution[90]. Although [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimics have good H2 release activity, most of them are insoluble in water. To solve this problem, researchers introduced water-soluble groups into hydrogenase to solve this problem. Wang et al. Have developed an artificial water-soluble [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimetic by introducing a cyanide (CN) group to anchor three hydrophilic ether chains to the active site of the [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimetic to improve its solubility in water[86]. The developed [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimics were coupled to CdSe quantum dots for the photocatalytic generation of H2 in aqueous solutions containing ascorbic acid as an electron donor. The system can produce 786 mmol H2 in pure water solution after 10 H irradiation at λ > 400 nm. Wu et al. Used a new strategy to assemble the interface of [FeFe]-H2 enzyme mimics on the CdSe quantum dots of water-soluble artificial photosynthetic system, and the resulting photocatalytic system showed very high photocatalytic H2 generation efficiency[87]. These results indicate that the interfacial contact and strong interaction are very important for enhancing the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution performance of the artificial enzyme system.

2.1.4 MOF and MOF derivatives

Metal-organic framework (MOF) is a new type of porous material, which is self-assembled by metal particles or clusters and organic linkers. It has many outstanding advantages, such as periodic distribution of metal centers, ordered porous structure and adjustable functional groups. First, the size of the semiconductor particles can be controlled when MOF is used as the dispersion matrix[91,92]. Secondly, the high specific surface area of MOF can produce more active sites, which is conducive to the contact between reactants and active sites. Thirdly, the porous structure of MOF can provide additional paths for electron migration and promote charge separation. In the CdS/UiO-66 catalyst reported by Xu et al., UiO-66 not only improves the dispersion of CdS on its surface, but also plays the role of charge separation and cocatalyst[91]. In addition, the highly dispersed metal active sites in MOF can avoid the sintering of metal nanoparticles in the reaction process[93]. MOF derivatives can also be used as cocatalysts in photocatalytic hydrogen production. Uch as Co2P, CoP, Ni2P[92][94][95]. Li et al. Prepared C3N4-NiCoP2- catalysts with porous carbon ternary structure through the combination of Ni-MOF and C3N4[96]. The porous structure formed by MOF template can prevent the accumulation of g-C3N4 nanosheets, porous carbon can promote the transport of charges, and NiCoP2 can reduce the overpotential of H2. Fu et al. Synthesized CoSx polyhedral cocatalyst by using the structure of MOF polyhedron. The hollow structure can enhance the collection of light, provide more exposed surfaces, and help to increase the number of reactive sites[97].

2.2 Metal-free promoter

Among the metal-free promoters used for photocatalysis, various carbon-containing materials, such as carbon quantum dots and graphene, are common[98][99,100]. Graphene has excellent electron transport properties and high specific surface area. Zhang et al. Supported Zn0.8Cd0.2S,RGO on reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanosheets as electron collectors and transporters as well as promoters, and its activity is better than that of Pt promoters[101]. The transfer of photogenerated electrons from the conduction band of the Zn0.8Cd0.2S to the RGO is beneficial to prevent the reduction of Cd2+ and Zn2+, inhibit the photocorrosion of the Zn0.8Cd0.2S, and improve the stability of the catalyst.

2.3 Multicomponent cocatalyst

The multi-component cocatalyst can integrate the advantages of each component and improve the catalytic activity[102~107]. For example, different kinds of metal nanoparticles are combined or form an alloy or a core-shell structure to improve the catalytic activity, such as Au/Pt nanoparticles, Ag-Cu alloy, Co-Ni alloy, Pd-Ag alloy, Pt-Au alloy, Pd-Co alloy, Au @ Pd core-shell structure and Ni/NiO core-shell structure[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115]. The ability of different components of the promoter to capture electrons can be different to achieve a hierarchical transfer of electrons, such as the Co3S4/Co@C promoter[116]. Bai et al. synthesized Pd @ Pt core-shell promoters with Pt shells of different atomic layer thicknesses, which were combined with TiO2. Due to the different work functions of Pt and Pd, the charge polarization caused by electron transfer from Pd to Pt improved the ability of charge separation[117]. The charge density shows that the charge polarization effect decays sharply with the increase of the shell thickness, and almost disappears when the Pt shell thickness reaches four atomic layers. When the Pt shell is three atomic layers thick (0. 6 nm), the ability of charge polarization at the Pd-Pt interface for charge separation is optimal. Chen et al. Prepared N-doped graphitized carbon (NGC) coated FeNi metal compound nanoparticles as a promoter 118]. Due to the different electronegativities of Fe and Ni, there is a secondary charge transfer from Fe to Ni in FeNi intermetallic compounds, and the generated high-energy electrons promote the adsorption of hydrogen on the NGC shell surface. MoS2 and graphene can combine their respective advantages to improve the catalytic activity. MoS2 is a good co-catalyst for hydrogen production, but its conductivity is poor. The good conductivity of graphene can make up for this shortcoming[99,100].
Among the multi-component core-shell cocatalysts, the core-shell structure containing carbon component has attracted much attention. The core-shell structure can achieve a large contact area between different components, and has the following unique advantages: (1) the outer shell can inhibit the growth of the inner component, and its size can be controlled to ensure more exposed surface area and active sites; (2) close contact at the interface ensures efficient interfacial charge separation and transfer; (3) strong electronic coupling can optimize the electronic structure of the two components; (4) The external component may stabilize the internal component from oxidation/degradation. Uch as FeNi @ NGC promoters and Ni @ C nanoparticle promoters[118][119].
In the binary promoter system, according to the functional type of the catalyst, it can be divided into two types, both of which are reduction-type promoters and the combination of reduction-type and oxidation-type promoters, such as Pt and Ni reduction-type promoters supported on CdS @ ZnS[120]. Au and CoP are loaded on the inside and the outside of the reticular C3N4, and the distance between the double promoters is adjusted by adjusting the thickness of the C3N4, so that the double promoters with optimal spatial positioning are prepared[18]. The combination of reduction-type and oxidation-type promoters can simultaneously induce charge and hole separation and synergistically improve the activity of the catalyst, for example, the combination of reduction-type promoters Pt, AuCu alloy and transition metal oxides MOx(M=Pd,Co,Ni,Mn,Ir,Pb and Cu) synergistically improves the activity of hydrogen production[59,121,122][123~129]. The importance of selecting appropriate reduction and oxidation promoters is crucial to improve the catalytic activity. Yang et al combined PdS oxidation promoters and different types of metal reduction promoters Pt, Rh, Au with CdS, and found that the activity of PdS combined with Pt was the highest[130]. Some metal oxide promoters, such as NiOx, RuO2 and CoOx, can act as both reductive and oxidative promoters, which are called bifunctional promoters. These bifunctional promoters play different roles in different catalytic systems.
Among the metal promoters, different kinds of metals play different roles in photocatalysis. Pd has good H adsorption performance, Ag has good electron storage performance, but its hydrogen adsorption performance is poor[131]. Pt has a strong ability to capture electrons due to its large work function. Secondly, the Gibbs free energy of Pt adsorbing H proton is close to zero, and it is easy to adsorb H and release H thermodynamically, which makes Pt the most effective promoter for hydrogen evolution[132]. The Gibbs free energy of H proton adsorbed on Au is relatively high, but its plasmon effect has attracted much attention in photocatalysis. However, the application of these precious metals is limited due to their high price. Instead, researchers have developed many non-noble metal promoters such as Ni, Co, Cu, etc. These non-noble metal catalysts are abundant and cheap. The combination of non-noble metals and noble metals to form alloy nanoparticles such as Pt-Co alloy and Ag-Cu alloy can combine the advantages of different metals to improve the photocatalytic activity[33][42][31,46][113][109].
Considering that only the surface active center atoms participate in the reaction, many studies have focused on improving the atomic efficiency of metal particles. Shrinking metals into clusters or even individual atoms provides an efficient way to maximize the use of atoms. Despite the high efficiency of monatomic catalysts, further optimization is needed to mitigate the severe agglomeration or coarsening caused by their instability during catalytic reactions[47,49]. The complex interactions between promoters and semiconductors make it more difficult to apply metal atom promoters in the field of photocatalysis, and the interaction between single atoms and supported catalysts is essential to stabilize these active single atoms[47,50].
The phosphide in the metal complex promoter may act as a diproton adsorption site, e.g., CoP, FexP[78][79]. However, the use of metal phosphides is limited due to the production of toxic substances in the synthesis process[78]. The transition metal sulfide MoS2 is a noble metal-free and cost-effective cocatalyst, and its exposed S edge can provide abundant active sites for H adsorption and desorption[133]. Different crystal structures of transition metal cocatalysts can be transformed into each other, and it is difficult to precisely control a certain crystal structure in the reaction. As a new type of H2 release cocatalyst, biological hydrogenase and its artificial mimics have high hydrogen production activity compared with cocatalysts of artificial molecules due to their inherent high activity as natural biological enzymes[134~136]. Hydrogenase cocatalysts, however, have two inherent disadvantages: (1) scale limitations associated with the use of enzymes derived from biological organisms. (2) The large geometric size of hydrogenase may not allow high loading of these biocatalysts onto nano-sized photocatalysts to achieve sufficient efficiency for industrial applications. In contrast, much smaller hydrogenase mimetics can be produced on a large scale, and they also exhibit good activity. However, a key problem with hydrogenase mimetics is their solubility in water, which requires a biologically toxic organic solvent to help them dissolve in water. It is very important to develop hydrogenase mimics with high solubility for improving photocatalytic activity[137]. In addition, the relationship between the molecular structure and properties of hydrogenase should be systematically studied in order to rationally design and modify it in the future.
Metal-organic framework (MOF) derived cocatalysts can increase the number of active sites due to the large specific surface area. The hollow structure formed by MOF also contributes to the refraction and reflection of light and improves the utilization rate of light[97]. The porous carbon can also be used as an interface mediator between the semiconductor and the cocatalyst, which can promote charge transport[95]. However, MOF-derived cocatalysts generally need to be calcined at high temperatures, and their structure is difficult to control[96].
Metal-free carbon nanomaterials have many unique properties, such as high conductivity, large surface area and novel morphology, and are inexpensive, abundant, stable and non-toxic. Graphene, for example, exhibits metal-like properties due to its large work function (4.42 eV)[138]. As a result, graphene can accept photogenerated electron from most semiconductors. At the same time, the reduction potential of graphene/graphene (·-) is -0.08 eV, which is more negative than that of H+/H2, and can reduce H+ to H2 molecules[139]. Therefore, graphene can be used as an efficient and low-cost promoter to promote electron transfer, which can separate and transfer electrons from semiconductors and reduce protons on their surfaces[140]. In plasma-containing catalytic systems, graphene can be used as a bridge for the transfer of hot electrons generated by plasmon metals to semiconductors[141~146]. The carbon-containing shell of the multicomponent cocatalyst stabilizes the internal structure[119].
Because different cocatalysts play different roles in the catalytic reaction, the synergistic effect of each component in the multi-component cocatalyst formed by the combination of the cocatalysts can more effectively promote the photocatalytic hydrogen production activity[119,125,128]. In addition, the multi-component cocatalyst can also promote the hierarchical transfer of charge and improve the electron-hole separation efficiency[116,117,147]. Core-shell cocatalyst has the following two advantages: (1) larger surface area and more active sites, (2) the synergistic effect between different components can reduce the recombination of electrons and holes and avoid the occurrence of reverse reactions[148]. However, some metal particles are easy to precipitate from the core shell, resulting in the deactivation of the catalyst with the reaction time[115]. Due to the limitations of process conditions and single crystal semiconductors, it is difficult to realize the loading of different promoters on different positions (including crystal planes) of semiconductors in multi-component promoters[127,128].

3 Method for loading cocatalyst

The cocatalyst can be loaded into the semiconductor by various methods, such as hydrothermal method, photoreduction method, chemical reduction method, calcination method, mechanical grinding method, ultrasonic and stirring self-assembly method and the like[66,69,76][26,110][96][62,72,92][119]. Metal nanoparticles, such as Pd-Ag alloys, Pt-Au alloys, Pt-Co alloys, Au nanoparticles, are typically loaded into semiconductors by hydrothermal, photoreduction, and chemical reduction methods[11][112][113][25]. MOF-derived promoters are usually combined with semiconductors, such as Ni2P and CoP, by calcination[80][94]. The monatomic promoter can be supported on the semiconductor by stirring or calcining under inert gas, and can also be supported on the semiconductor by impregnation[47,48][49]. The deposition of double promoters on different crystal planes is usually achieved by photoreduction using the charge hole migration of semiconductors, such as the deposition of double promoters on different crystal planes of BiVO4, TiO2 and SrTiO3[126][127][128].

4 Influence factors of promoters in photocatalytic hydrogen production

4.1 Size effect

The size of the promoter affects the catalytic activity[68,130]. Subramanian et al. First isolated the single charge transfer step determining the photocatalytic process through the continuous electron transfer from the TiO2 to Au and then to the C60, which provided mechanism and kinetic information for the role of metal in photocatalysis and the size dependence of metal-semiconductor[149].
The electronic properties (LUMO) of metal nanoclusters are related to their size, and the location of LUMO can be changed by adjusting the size of metal nanoclusters[150,151]. Schweinberger et al. found that the LUMO orbital of the promoter Pt nanocluster is lower than the CB site of the semiconductor in order to realize the charge transfer from the semiconductor to Pt, and at the same time, the LUMO of Pt needs to be higher than the reduction potential of the H+ in order to generate H2, as shown in Figure 7. These two opposing factors determine that the nanocluster has the optimal size range[150].
In addition, the work function of the metal decreases with the increase of the particle size, thereby reducing the height of the Schottky junction and promoting the transfer of more electrons[152,153]. Vamvasakis et al found that the activity of Pt nanoparticles (1.8 ~ 2.6 nm) in CdS micropores increased with the increase of nanoparticles due to the balance of electron distribution caused by electron transfer from CdS to Pt[154]. In addition, metal nanoparticles also show a similar size effect on the Fermi level equilibrium of semiconductors. For example, Pt with a size of 1 nm in a single crystal TiO2 can shift the Fermi level of the TiO2 to a more negative position, resulting in enhanced photocatalytic performance[25]. The size effect of the cocatalyst also affects the kinetic process of charge transfer, thereby affecting the catalytic activity. The semiconductor nanorod tip supported metal promoter is often used as a catalyst model to study the size effect of metal.Because the catalyst model can separate the contribution of the size effect of the metal promoter from the surface coverage effect between the promoter and the support, that is, the position and number of regions, it is convenient to better study the size effect of the promoter. It is found that there is a competitive relationship between the electron capture efficiency at the metal interface and the electron release at the metal/water interface, and these two processes are related to the size of the metal nanoparticles.The former increases with increasing nanoparticle size, while the latter decreases with increasing nanoparticle size. These two factors show the opposite dependence of metal size[155,156]. In addition, the charge transfer in the semiconductor nanorods and the charge transfer to the tip metal are also related to the size of the metal. Nakibli et al. synthesized CdSe @ CdS nanorod tips loaded with Ni nanoparticles of different sizes for catalytic hydrogen production. The charge transfer kinetics in the catalyst is two continuous and independent processes: (1) the electron migration rate along the rod to the interface is slow[157]. This is because there is a Coulomb repulsion between electrons, and there is a loss of energy. (2) The migration rate at the interface is fast. There is a Schottky junction for electron transfer at the interface, and the Schottky junction increases with the increase of metal size, and the Coulomb blockade decreases, as shown in Figure 8. These two opposite trends lead to the optimal size range (5. 2 nm) for the promoter to improve the hydrogen production activity and quantum efficiency.Therefore, the optimal size of the metal promoter is the result of the combination of Coulomb blockade and Schottky junction. In a similar catalytic model, the optimal size of Pd is 2.2 nm[131].
If the size of the promoter is too large, it will affect its catalytic performance or make the surface effect disappear[66]. When Ni nanoparticles were encapsulated in MOF as a promoter, the overpotential of hydrogen evolution was different for different sizes of Ni particles.The overpotential decreased with the decrease of the size of Ni particles.When the size of Ni nanoparticles was 20 nm, the overpotential of H2 formation was-0. 44 V, and when the size was 3 nm, the overpotentials of H2 formation could be reduced to-0. 35 V[34]. The size of the cocatalyst is also related to the adsorption energy of the H2 in the photocatalysis, thereby affecting the catalytic performance[158,159].

4.2 Position effect

The position of the cocatalyst in the photocatalyst is also important for the activity. Park et al. Found that in the catalyst formed by CdS/TiO2 and Pt, when Pt is only deposited on the TiO2, the charge is transferred from CdS to the TiO2 to Pt in one direction, which is conducive to the effective separation of charges[160]. When Pt is distributed on CdS and TiO2, the charge transfer is multi-directional, which reduces the charge transfer efficiency and is not conducive to improving the catalytic activity. In the heterojunction photocatalyst formed by CdS/TiO2, Qi et al realized the different loading positions of the MoS2 of the promoter by tuning UV-visible light to visible light[161]. Under visible light, the MoS2 is only directionally deposited on the CdS, and under ultraviolet-visible light, the MoS2 is partially deposited on the TiO2 in addition to the CdS. It was found that the loading position of the promoter affects the recombination of charge carriers at the interface, thus affecting the photocatalytic activity of the CdS/TiO2 heterojunction under visible light. Directional deposition of MoS2 only on CdS can effectively receive and localize photogenerated charges, thereby eliminating surface charge recombination centers and improving charge separation efficiency. However, under UV-visible light, the MoS2 is deposited on the CdS and TiO2, which can not realize the directional transfer of photogenerated charges. The hydrogen production activity, photocurrent, impedance, photon-current conversion efficiency and fluorescence show that the MoS2 distributed on the TiO2 will become the recombination center of electrons and holes, which is not conducive to the separation of charges and holes, thus affecting the promotion of activity. In the catalyst Pt @ MOF (MIL-125)/Au with the coexistence of plasmon effect and Schottky junction, the Pt in the interior of MIL-125 is more conducive to the formation of Schottky junction than that on the surface of MIL-125, thus promoting charge transfer better[162]. A similar phenomenon was also reported for Pt-Uio-66 catalyst[163]. It can be seen that the random distribution of the cocatalyst increases the possibility of charge recombination and leads to serious side reactions or reverse reactions[31]. In the catalytic system with double promoters, the main methods to realize the directional loading of promoters are as follows: (1) The promoters are loaded on the inner and outer surfaces of the hollow core-shell semiconductor respectively. For example, transition metal oxide (MOx(M=Pd,Co,Ni, and Cu) nanoclusters and Pt nanoparticles are deposited on the inside and outside of the hollow TiO2, respectively (fig. 9a, B). This method requires relatively cumbersome operations and strong alkali (NaOH) etching or high-temperature calcination to remove the hard template[124,164][127]. (2) Selective deposition of oxidation/reduction promoters by facet engineering, such as Pt and Co3O4, onto different facets of the BiVO4 and TiO2, respectively, as shown in fig. 9c[126,127]. This method is limited by single crystal semiconductors[130]. And (3) selecting a semiconductor material with a specific morphological structure, wherein electrons and holes can migrate to different positions, so as to realize the spatial separation of the cocatalyst. Ding et al. Deposited AuCu alloy and AOx(A=Mn,Ni (Pb) on the edge and groove of the nano-step of the monoclinic CaIn2S4 with nano-step structure, respectively, to synergistically improve the photocatalytic hydrogen production rate[129].

4.3 Configuration effect

The catalytic efficiency is related to the morphology of the promoter, and the morphology of the promoter Pt will change during the reaction, indicating that the catalytic efficiency is dependent on the shape of the promoter[165~167][168]. The morphology effect of metal promoters is mainly due to the different atomic structures on the surface of catalyst particles. The atoms at the edge or corner of catalyst particles are highly active reaction centers, and the existence of high-energy crystal faces reduces the activation energy of reaction, thus improving the catalytic performance. Luo et al. compared the hydrogen production activity of cubic Pt and spherical Pt in CdS, and found that the activity of cubic Pt was higher than that of spherical Pt, because Pt cubes had higher atomic density crystal planes for proton adsorption and hydrogen production than Pt nanospheres[152]. Pt nanocubes are superior to Pt nanospheres in the contact with CdS, which can reduce the impedance between Pt and CdS. A large number of studies have shown that the active sites are mainly located at the edge or surface of the promoter, typically the MoS2. Therefore, polyhedra with more exposed edges are considered to be suitable morphological features for the cocatalyst, such as hollow CoSx polyhedra[97]. At present, most of the studies on MoS2 are focused on the preparation of a few or monolayer MoS2, which can expand the band gap due to the quantum confinement effect and enhance the proton adsorption due to the increase of the number of unsaturated sulfur atoms. Wang et al. Synthesized an edge-enriched ultrathin MoS2 sheet with a length of 12 nm and a thickness of 0.37 nm, which was uniformly dispersed among the yolk-like TiO2 particles[169]. The ultrafine MoS2 flakes of small size show a relatively large number of exposed edges compared to the bulk MoS2, and therefore, the number of catalytically active sites in the ultrafine MoS2 is greater. Shi et al. Studied the charge transfer kinetics between g-C3N4 and two kinds of MoS2 (nanodots and monolayers), which provided ideas for optimizing the structure of cocatalysts and highly active deposition methods[133]. The single particle photoluminescence results show that compared with the MoS2 monolayer, due to the closer binding between the MoS2 nanodots and the g-C3N4,The fluorescence emission peak of the g-C3N4 can be quenched more effectively, and the electron injection rate and efficiency of the g-C3N4/MoS2 nanodots are higher than those of the g-C3N4/MoS2 monolayer hybrid. In addition, the MoS2 nanodots with smaller size contain more unsaturated active S atoms than the monolayer MoS2, and can adsorb more hydrogen ions.
The crystal face of the promoter also affects the activity of the catalyst[34]. Cao et al. Reported that the { 111 } face Pd tetrahedron structure deposited on the TiO2 is more active than the { 100 } face cubic structure because the { 111 } face Pd has a stronger ability to capture electrons and adsorb H atoms[170]. The Pt3Sn nanocubes with { 110 } crystal face can reduce the overpotential of hydrogen generation and the proton adsorption free energy, which is beneficial to hydrogen generation thermodynamically, so the activity of the Pt3Sn nanocubes with { 110 } crystal face is higher than that of the Pt3Sn with { 100 } crystal face[171].
In the reaction with the cocatalyst system, the kinetic process of charge transfer is shown in schematic diagram 10, and the charge transfer is divided into the following processes, the first is the transfer from the photocatalyst to the cocatalyst,Labeled kET, the second is the transfer of electrons from the promoter to the hydrogen atom, labeled kred, and the transfer of electrons to the promoter is reversed and captured by the semiconductor, labeled krev[149,172]. In the metal-cocatalyst modified semiconductor composite structure, the electron transfer process from the metal to the electron acceptor is slower than that from the semiconductor to the metal, that is, kred<krev, so it is necessary to optimize these two electron transfer processes to design and synthesize efficient catalysts. The structure and composition of metals affect their electronic States and the process of electron transfer, so it is necessary to precisely control the composition and structure of metal promoters[173]. Different metals have different effects on the electron transfer process mentioned above. Su et al. Found that the kred and krev of Au nanoparticles are greater than those of Pd.The kred value of Pd is small and the krev value is negligible, which indicates that the kred and krev can be adjusted by the electronic state of the metal[114]. Excellent catalytic performance requires fast reduction reaction, i.e., high kred value, and slow reverse electron transfer rate, i.e., relatively small krev value.By optimizing the composition and structure of Au and Pd, Au @ Pd core-shell cocatalyst was synthesized to improve the hydrogen production activity of TiO2. In addition to the influence of metal nanoparticles on the kinetics of charge transfer, different metals have different functions in hydrogen production, and the catalytic activity can also be optimized by adjusting the composition of alloy nanoparticles[173].

4.4 Quantity effect

The cocatalyst has many functions in photocatalysis, and its number will affect the balance of different functions, thereby affecting the catalytic activity. The amount of Pd is determined by the balance between the number of active sites/Schottky junctions and the light shielding effect of Pd in the photocatalytic system in which plasma Au and promoter Pd are combined[174]. The amount of cocatalyst affects the catalytic activity mainly from the following aspects: 1) too much cocatalyst will agglomerate and block the pores of the photocatalyst, which will reduce the accessibility of reactants to the surface active sites in the nanochannel and lead to the reduction of activity[26,61,66,101,175]; 2) Too much cocatalyst will become the recombination center of charge and hole, which is not conducive to the separation of charges[133]; 3) Too much cocatalyst has light shielding effect, which affects the absorption of light[66,126]. For example, too much monatomic Co-NG in the TiO2 will weaken the light absorption ability of the TiO2[175].
Based on the quantitative effect of cocatalysts on activity, many studies have focused on maximizing catalytic efficiency using the least amount of cocatalysts. Simon et al. studied the effect of the amount of promoter on charge separation and recombination by changing the amount of promoter Pt to distribute Pt nanoparticles only to the tips of CdS nanorods and to their surfaces (Fig. 11)[176]. Increasing the amount of Pt to distribute on the surface of CdS nanorods can shorten the migration path of photogenerated electrons from CdS to Pt and increase the transfer rate, but due to the increase of the recombination rate of transferred electrons with nearby holes, the transfer rate to Pt becomes slower, and its photocatalytic performance is significantly lower than that of hydrogen production rate when Pt nanoparticles are only loaded on the tip of CdS. Obviously, the removal of holes is very important to reduce charge recombination and increase the transfer rate of electrons to the promoter[177]. In view of this, an effective dielectric hole extraction mechanism was used to remove holes at the tip of Pt-modified CdS nanorods, which reduced the recombination of electrons and holes and realized the strategy of preparing efficient photocatalysts with a minimum amount of promoters. Zhang et al. Achieved a small amount of Pt promoter to improve the catalytic activity through a simple and convenient one-pot solvothermal method[178]. When the ideal loading amount of Pt is only 0.06%, it can be sufficiently dispersed and utilized, and its side effects can be minimized. In addition to Pt, this method is also suitable for the deposition of Pd or Ru, providing ideas for the design of composites containing small amounts of promoters.

4.5 Other factors

In addition to the various factors affecting the activity of the promoter itself, the interface contact between the promoter and the semiconductor in the composite catalyst and the energy level position involved in the charge transfer process also affect the catalytic activity.

4.5.1 Interface contact

The contact area of the cocatalyst with the photocatalyst is a factor to be considered in optimizing the catalytic activity. Because even if the energy allows, the improper contact area can destroy the smooth electron transfer process between the interfaces[154]. For example, Murdoch et al. Loaded Au nanoparticles on the TiO2, because the number of contact sites between Au particles of different sizes and the TiO2 did not match the sites needed to participate in the reaction, when the Au nanoparticles were less than 12 nm, the hydrogen production rate increased with the increase of Au nanoparticles, and when they were more than 12 nm, the activity decreased[179]. In addition, the interfacial contact between the promoter and the semiconductor affects the rate of charge transfer. For example, in the composite catalyst prepared by grinding method, the promoter and the semiconductor are in physical contact, and the promoter is easy to fall off in the reaction process, which affects the improvement of activity[62]. Chemical bonds can act as a bridge for charge transfer, which is conducive to the separation and transfer of charges[94,180]. For example, the Ni promoter and the S-doped C3N4 photocatalyst are connected by the chemical bond Ni — S — C — N, and the C — O — Ni bond in the heterojunction formed by the amorphous NiO promoter and the C3N4 is beneficial to the charge transfer[33][181].

4.5.2 Energy Level Matching

The energy level position of the promoter is also crucial to the photocatalytic hydrogen production rate. The band gap of the transition metal sulfide promoter MoS2 and WS2 increases with the decrease of the layer number, for example, the band gap position of the MoS2 can increase from 1.3 eV to 1.8 eV with the change of the layer number[182,183]. In addition, the change of the number of MoS2 layers will bring about the change of VB and CB, and the corresponding photocatalytic activity is also different. Chang et al found that the single-layer MoS2 showed a more negative CB energy level, which provided a suitable CB site for the photogenerated electrons injected from CdS to participate in the hydrogen reduction reaction, so it has good hydrogen production activity[184]. The structure and properties of monolayer WS2 are similar to those of MoS2. Chen et al. Reported the synthesis of monolayer MoS2 and WS2 on the surface of wurtzite CdS by a simple one-pot wet chemical method.These monolayer MS2/CdS(M=Mo,W) nanocomposites have a large number of edge sites in the MS2 layer, which are active sites for H2 generation and show high hydrogen production rates[185].

5 Conclusion and prospect

Although many efficient cocatalysts have been synthesized, there are still many unknown factors affecting the activity of cocatalysts, and the various effects of cocatalysts need to be further explored and elaborated.Efforts need to be made in the following aspects: (1) Although noble metals are considered to be excellent promoters, their practical application is hindered by the limitation of high cost. Therefore, there is a need to develop excellent noble metal-free promoters, including metal compounds and carbonaceous materials. (2) The method of depositing the promoter should be optimized, and a simple method should be developed to adjust the deposition position and quantity of the promoter to improve the catalytic activity. (3) In addition to the factors affecting the catalytic activity described in this paper, there are many other factors that can affect the catalytic activity, such as the combination mode and contact area between the promoter and the photocatalyst.Improper contact area will destroy the smooth electron transfer process between particles. Various experimental conditions, such as light excitation, hole removal conditions, etc., will affect the catalytic activity. When designing the catalyst, we should consider many aspects[154][186][187][26].

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Funding

Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province of China(B2020209017)

Project of Science and Technology Innovation Team, Tang Shan.

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