Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Batteries under Extreme Conditions

Yixuan Dong; Ziqi Zeng; Jiayue Peng; Shijie Cheng; Jia Xie

doi:10.7536/PC20250721

Progress in Chemistry ›› 2026, Vol. 38 ›› Issue (4) : 649-660 DOI: 10.7536/PC20250721

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Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Batteries under Extreme Conditions

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Abstract

Lithium metal batteries are considered one of the most promising next-generation energy storage technologies due to their exceptionally high theoretical energy density， with the potential to exceed 500 Wh/kg. However， under extreme conditions such as high voltage， high temperatures， and low temperatures， these batteries often suffer from interfacial instability and hindered lithium-ion transport， severely limiting their cycling life and safety. By synergistically tailoring the primary solvents， lithium salts， diluents， and functional additives， localized high-concentration electrolytes can establish anion-dominated solvation structures that effectively enhance interfacial stability and ion transport kinetics， suppress side reactions， and promote the formation of robust solid electrolyte interphases. This review systematically summarizes the primary failure mechanisms and the coupled degradation pathways between the interface and bulk phases in lithium metal batteries under extreme conditions. It further provides an in-depth analysis of the mechanistic roles of localized high-concentration electrolytes in regulating interfacial chemistry and improving transport properties. Additionally， it highlights representative component-structure-function strategies for various extreme environments and discusses future research directions in novel solvent design， efficient additive screening， and interfacial evolution mechanisms.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Failure mechanisms and key challenges of LMBs under extreme conditions

2.1 Interfacial and structural failure at high voltage

2.2 Coupled degradation and thermal runaway at high temperature

2.3 Transport limitations and dendrite growth under low temperatures

3 Solvation interfacial multiscale regulation mechanisms of LHCEs

4 Applications of LHCEs in LMBs under extreme conditions

4.1 LHCEs for LMBs under high-voltage conditions

4.2 LHCEs for LMBs under high-temperature conditions

4.3 LHCEs for LMBs under low-temperature conditions

5 Conclusion

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Keywords

lithium metal battery / localized high-concentration electrolyte / solvation structure / interfacial stability / ion transport kinetics / extreme conditions

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Yixuan Dong, Ziqi Zeng, Jiayue Peng, Shijie Cheng, Jia Xie. Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Batteries under Extreme Conditions. Progress in Chemistry, 2026, 38(4): 649-660 DOI:10.7536/PC20250721

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1 Introduction

With the rapid iteration of 3C electronic products and the increasing demand for high-endurance power sources in new energy vehicles, the energy density of secondary batteries urgently needs to be breakthrough.^[1-2]Currently, the energy density (~300 Wh/kg) of commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) based on intercalation-type graphite anodes has approached its theoretical limit, making it difficult to meet the demands of future high-energy-density (>500 Wh/kg) application scenarios.^[3-4]Lithium metal batteries (LMBs), due to the ultra-high theoretical specific capacity of their lithium metal anodes (3862 mAh/g, approximately 10 times that of graphite anodes) and extremely low electrical potential (-3.04 V vs. SHE), are expected to achieve a theoretical energy density exceeding 500 Wh/kg when paired with high-voltage/high-capacity cathode materials, becoming a highly promising next-generation battery technology.^[5-7]High-energy-density LMBs not only hold promise for enabling electric vehicles to achieve ranges of thousands of kilometers^[8], but also possess significant application potential in severe environmental scenarios such as aerospace vehicles, polar research platforms, and deep space probes, where their operational stability under extreme conditions has become a key indicator for practical development.

During the cycling of LMBs, the highly chemically active metallic lithium continuously undergoes side reactions with the electrolyte, forming a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). However, the initially formed SEI layer typically lacks density and stability, making it difficult to effectively prevent subsequent interfacial side reactions. This leads to repeated destruction and reconstruction of the SEI, significantly reducing Coulombic efficiency and cycling stability.^[9]. Furthermore, the uneven distribution of the electric field on the surface of lithium metal causes an imbalance in the local lithium ion (Li⁺) flux, inducing non-uniform lithium deposition and promoting the formation and growth of lithium dendrites.^[10]. The grown dendrites may pierce the separator, triggering severe safety risks such as internal short circuits, thermal runaway, and even explosions.^[11-12]. Meanwhile, as a hostless metallic lithium anode, lithium undergoes drastic volume expansion changes during deposition/stripping processes, which easily leads to electrode structure cracking and interfacial instability, further weakening the battery's cycle life.^[13-14]. Not only does the anode face the aforementioned issues, but the cathode side of LMBs also suffers from the dual troubles of unstable interfacial films and structural degradation. The cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) formed on the cathode side typically lacks chemical stability and ionic selectivity, making it difficult to effectively suppress continuous electrolyte decomposition or prevent the dissolution of transition metals. The dissolved transition metal ions migrate to the anode, where they destroy the SEI, induce SEI reconstruction, and even promote lithium dendrite growth, constituting a severe crossover effect.^[15-17]. Additionally, cathode materials may also undergo problems such as structural phase transitions, lattice fracture, and bulk collapse, further leading to rapid decay of battery capacity.^[18].

In addition to interface issues, the physicochemical properties of the electrolyte are also a key factor affecting the overall performance of LMBs. Especially in low-temperature environments, the decrease in ionic conductivity and Li⁺desolvation hindrance will lead to intensified interface polarization and induce uneven lithium deposition, ultimately accelerating battery failure^[19-20]. To address these issues, researchers have proposed electrode structure design^[21-22], construction of artificial SEI/CEI protective layers^[23-24], and electrolyte optimization^[25-26]and other strategies. Among them, electrolyte optimization can regulate the solvation structure by changing the component ratio, achieving effective control of interface reactions without changing the battery architecture. It has significant advantages such as mature preparation processes and strong production line compatibility, demonstrating outstanding engineering potential. Especially localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs)^[27-28], by introducing diluents that do not dissolve lithium salts, retain the solvation structure and interface regulation capability of high-concentration electrolytes, while effectively alleviating problems of high viscosity and low ionic conductivity, balancing interface stability and Li⁺transport capability. This unique "localized high concentration-global low concentration" characteristic enables it to simultaneously construct a stable electrode/electrolyte interface and suppress side reactions under extreme conditions, providing new ideas for improving the performance of LMBs under extreme conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature.

This paper focuses on the cross-scale structure-activity mechanisms and system design strategies of LHCEs in LMBs, systematically reviewing how regulating molecular-scale solvation structures influences the composition and morphological evolution of nanoscale interfacial films, thereby optimizing interfacial ion migration and desolvation kinetic processes. It aims to enhance the cycling stability and safety of batteries at the macroscopic scale, and further discusses performance optimization and application progress under extreme conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature. First, this paper analyzes the primary failure mechanisms of LMBs under extreme conditions including high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature. The results indicate that changes in molecular-scale solvation structures enhance interfacial reaction activity, easily inducing uneven SEI film growth and triggering dendrite runaway on the anode side, while leading to CEI film instability and disintegration on the cathode side; meanwhile, Li⁺kinetic hindrance during transport further amplifies polarization, ultimately causing structural damage and capacity fading, presenting multi-scale synergistic degradation characteristics among interfacial behavior, transport kinetics, and structural stress. Secondly, this paper elucidates the unique advantages of LHCEs in stabilizing electrode/electrolyte interface chemistry under extreme conditions while regulating solvation structures, and summarizes synergistic optimization strategies regarding components such as main solvents, lithium salts, and diluents. It systematically reviews the regulatory effects and research progress of LHCEs on interfacial stability and ion transport under high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature conditions, with a focus on exploring the structure-activity relationships between chemical composition, structural features, and interfacial behavior. Finally, this paper outlines future research directions for LHCEs in the development of novel solvent systems, characterization of interfacial reaction mechanisms, and construction of practical systems, providing theoretical basis and strategic references for the design of high-performance LMBs under extreme conditions.

2 Failure Mechanisms and Core Challenges of LMBs under Extreme Conditions

The performance degradation and safety hazards of LMBs under extreme conditions of high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature essentially stem from the coupling effects between unstable SEI/CEI interfaces and restricted liquid-phase transport processes in the electrolyte. Compared to conventional conditions, high voltage in extreme environments easily induces oxidative decomposition, high temperature exacerbates interfacial film deterioration and side reactions, and low temperature restricts ion transport and interfacial kinetic processes, causing LMBs to exhibit multi-scale, cross-coupled interfacial failure and structural degradation behaviors.

2.1 Interface degradation and structural deterioration under high-pressure conditions

Under high-voltage conditions, the failure of LMBs primarily stems from the synergistic effects of unstable interfacial films, oxidative decomposition of the electrolyte, and structural degradation of the cathode material. High voltage exacerbates interfacial side reactions and induces unstable evolution of the cathode structure, forming a coupled failure pathway between the interface and the bulk phase.^[29]First, the chemical stability of the CEI film significantly decreases under high voltage. Traditional carbonate-based electrolytes, such as ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), are prone to oxidative decomposition above 4.3 V, generating gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), as well as non-uniform solid byproducts. These products not only disrupt the interfacial integrity of the cathode surface but also induce uneven film formation and CEI reconstruction, leading to increased interfacial impedance and exacerbated interfacial instability.^[30-31]Although ether-based electrolytes are more compatible with lithium metal anodes, their oxidation resistance is poor; they still undergo significant oxidation above 4.0 V, generating thick and insulating CEI layers that inhibit Li⁺transport and reduce cycling efficiency.^[32]Under high voltage, cathode materials undergo repeated expansion and contraction during extensive Li⁺intercalation and deintercalation processes. Stress accumulation leads to lattice distortion, dislocations, and the formation of microcracks.^[33-34]The accumulation of defects weakens the structural integrity of the material, promotes the formation of inactive phases such as the rock-salt phase, blocks Li⁺migration channels, reduces electronic conductivity, and suppresses interfacial reaction kinetics. Furthermore, the dissolution of transition metal ions from the cathode is particularly severe under high voltage. Dissolved Ni²⁺, Mn²⁺, etc., not only catalyze further electrolyte decomposition but also easily migrate to the anode surface, damaging the SEI film and inducing lithium dendrite growth, constituting a serious interfacial crosstalk effect. These cross-reaction mechanisms superimpose on each other, accelerating capacity fading and interfacial runaway in LMBs.^[16,35].

2.2 Interface-bulk co-degradation and thermal runaway induced by high temperature

High-temperature environments significantly accelerate the failure process of LMBs, with the core mechanism attributable to the combined degradation effects at the interface and in the bulk phase. At elevated temperatures, organic components in the SEI film (ROCOOLi, ROLi) are prone to thermal decomposition, thereby reducing their mechanical properties and ionic conductivity. The instability of the SEI will directly affect Li⁺ uniform deposition, promoting Li⁺ to preferentially deposit in local defect regions, thereby exacerbating the disordered growth of lithium dendrites^[36]. Under high-temperature conditions, the diffusion coefficient of Li⁺ in the electrolyte increases significantly, and the interfacial impedance of the SEI decreases, further accelerating the deposition rate of Li⁺ on the anode surface^[37]. Lithium dendrites continuously accumulate and grow during rapid deposition and cycling, eventually potentially penetrating the separator and causing internal short circuits, thereby triggering thermal runaway^[38]. Meanwhile, the flammability and volatility of the electrolyte under high temperatures further exacerbate the risk of thermal runaway. Common carbonate-based electrolytes, such as EC and DMC, are prone to volatilization and decomposition at high temperatures, releasing combustible gases like carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen (H₂). These gases, when mixed with oxygen (O₂), are highly susceptible to combustion and explosion, further aggravating battery safety hazards^[39]. The impact of high temperature on cathode materials is equally significant; cathode materials are prone to thermal decomposition at high temperatures, releasing O₂. The generated O₂ reacts with the electrolyte, releasing more heat and gas, intensifying internal heat accumulation in the battery. Furthermore, high temperatures accelerate the dissolution and migration of cathode materials, leading to the loss of active material and destruction of the electrode structure, which further reduces the cycle stability of the battery^[40]. Therefore, high temperature induces SEI film instability, exacerbates lithium dendrite growth, promotes electrolyte decomposition, and triggers cathode material thermal decomposition, forming a coupled degradation effect between the interface and the bulk phase. The interaction of these factors not only accelerates the failure process of LMBs but also significantly increases the risk of thermal runaway.

2.3 Transport inhibition and dendrite runaway under low-temperature conditions

Under low-temperature conditions, the performance degradation of LMBs stems from multi-scale coupling effects among the electrolyte, interfacial films, and electrodes. First, low temperatures significantly increase the Li⁺ desolvation energy barrier and reduce the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte, leading to hindered Li⁺ migration in the electrolyte, decreased charge transfer rates, and consequently severe polarization and reduced energy output efficiency^[41-42]. On the cathode side, the diffusion rate of Li⁺ within the active material significantly slows down at low temperatures, the ionic conductivity of the CEI film decreases, and the charge transfer impedance increases. This combination of kinetic limitations and uneven stress easily induces local lattice expansion, cracking, and particle fracture in the cathode, subsequently triggering cascading degradation reactions such as transition metal dissolution and CEI reconstruction^[43]. In contrast, the challenges faced by the lithium metal anode at low temperatures are even more severe. On one hand, incomplete decomposition of the electrolyte at low temperatures results in a loose and thermodynamically unstable initial SEI structure, which fails to effectively suppress lithium dendrite growth^[44]. On the other hand, limited Li⁺ diffusion at low temperatures, combined with electric field effects, causes deposition to favor specific local regions, resulting in uneven Li⁺ deposition on the anode surface. This accelerates dendrite formation and growth, which may subsequently pierce the separator, cause short circuits, and lead to rapid battery failure^[45]. Low temperatures induce a synergistic effect of bulk transport hindrance, interfacial film deterioration, and structural instability, forming a mechanism network responsible for the rapid failure of LMBs under low-temperature conditions. Therefore, systematically unraveling this coupling mechanism is crucial for enhancing the low-temperature performance of LMBs.

The failure mechanisms of LMBs under extreme conditions of high voltage, high temperature, or low temperature typically involve interfacial chemical changes and Li⁺transport limitations acting in concert; their interaction ultimately manifests as typical multi-scale synergistic degradation behavior. The core challenge lies in constructing SEI and CEI films that maintain chemical stability and excellent ionic conductivity under various operating conditions. Specifically, under high-voltage conditions, the unstable CEI structure fails to effectively passivate the cathode surface, easily inducing transition metal dissolution and cathode structural collapse, leading to decreased cycling stability; in high-temperature environments, SEI thermal decomposition and side reactions intensify, potentially triggering internal short circuits and thermal runaway; whereas at low temperatures, Li⁺desolvation energy barriers increase and interfacial migration efficiency decreases, resulting in uneven SEI film formation and Li⁺disordered deposition, which exacerbates dendrite growth and dead lithium accumulation. Therefore, achieving precise control over the structural stability of interfacial films and ion migration behavior has become key to enhancing the operational safety and cycle life of LMBs in extreme environments. In this context, the composition and solvation structure of the electrolyte have become the fundamental entry points for interfacial regulation. The coordination behavior between solvents and lithium salts not only determines their reaction pathways with electrode materials but also dominates the film formation process and chemical composition of the SEI and CEI, thereby affecting Li⁺interfacial migration efficiency and side reaction behaviors. Particularly under extreme conditions of high voltage, high temperature, or low temperature, the interfacial stability of the electrolyte has become the core bottleneck in designing high-performance LMBs. In recent years, LHCEs, by virtue of their unique anion-dominated solvation structures and excellent interfacial regulation capabilities, have demonstrated significant potential in alleviating multi-scale degradation mechanisms and are regarded as an important strategy to address the aforementioned challenges. It is worth noting that the "common causes" of interfacial instability and transport limitations under extreme conditions can both be traced back to Li⁺solvation environment and its reaction pathways at the interface. Therefore, deeply analyzing how LHCEs resolve the failure mechanisms described in the second part through solvation reconstruction, interfacial film regulation, and cross-scale transport optimization has become key to understanding their mechanism of action. Based on this, the next section will systematically elaborate on the solvation-interface cross-scale regulation mechanism of LHCEs.

3 LHCEs and Solvation-Interface Cross-Scale Regulation Mechanism

The performance degradation of LMBs under extreme conditions usually stems from the structural instability of the SEI/CEI interfacial films and Li⁺transport limitations, among other coupled issues; their interaction ultimately leads to multi-scale synergistic degradation. The formation and evolution of interfacial films highly depend on the solvation structure of Li⁺in the electrolyte. The solvation mode not only determines the migration pathway and desolvation kinetics of Li⁺, but also directly governs its reduction or oxidation reactions at the electrode interface, thereby influencing the chemical composition and structural compactness of the interfacial film. Therefore, controllable design centered on solvation structures, achieving molecular-scale ion coordination regulation, interface-scale selective optimization of film formation, and transport-scale kinetic enhancement, is the core strategy to ensure the stable operation of LMBs under extreme conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature. LHCEs are precisely an important solution to achieve this goal; while retaining the advantage of anion-dominated solvation structures found in high-concentration electrolytes, they significantly improve the system's viscosity, conductivity, and wettability by introducing diluents, thereby realizing the synergistic optimization of solvation structure reconstruction, enhanced interfacial chemical stability, and improved ion transport efficiency.^[46-48].

In conventional electrolytes, due to the low lithium salt concentration (typically ~1 M), Li⁺has a strong binding ability with solvents, and Li⁺mainly forms solvent-separated ion pairs (SSIPs) with multiple solvent molecules (Figure 1a)^[49], while anions exist in a free state. This solvation structure exhibits good ion mobility, but it creates a "solvent-rich environment" at the electrode interface, which easily induces oxidative or reductive decomposition of the solvent, generating SEI/CEI films with complex chemical compositions and poor mechanical properties, limiting the stable operation of LMBs under complex conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, or low temperature. As the lithium salt concentration increases, the number of free solvent molecules in the electrolyte significantly decreases, and Li⁺gradually forms contact ion pairs (CIPs) or aggregate ion pairs (AGGs) with anions (Figure 1b)^[49]. This anion-dominated solvation structure formed in high-concentration electrolytes (HCEs) helps induce the formation of LiF (Figure 1c)^[50]and other inorganic component-enriched, highly electronically insulating, stable interfacial films.

However, HCEs generally suffer from high viscosity, low ionic conductivity, poor wettability, and high cost, which severely restrict their practical application in batteries.^[51-52]. To overcome these limitations, researchers have introduced electrochemically inert diluents into HCEs (Figure 2a)^[50], such as 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE)^[50,53] and bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) ether (BTFE)^[54], to construct a new electrolyte system known as LHCEs^[27-28]. The addition of the diluent does not enter the first coordination sphere of Li⁺, thereby preserving the "anion-dominated" solvation characteristic primarily composed of CIPs/AGGs. Meanwhile, it significantly reduces viscosity and improves conductivity and wettability, enabling LHCEs to combine the interfacial advantages of HCEs with improved physicochemical properties (Figure 2b)^[50]. This "localized high-concentration" strategy endows LHCEs with unique advantages in intrinsic structure and performance. Regarding the interfacial regulation mechanism, LHCEs reconstruct the solvation structure, transforming the Li⁺ solvation shell from solvent-separated ion pairs (SSIPs) dominated by solvent molecules in conventional electrolytes to contact ion pairs/aggregates (CIPs/AGGs) involving anions. This environment promotes preferential anion decomposition, forming a stable SEI/CEI rich in inorganic components such as LiF and Li₂O on the electrode surface (Figure 1c)^[50], significantly enhancing interfacial chemical stability. Simultaneously, LHCEs alter the ion distribution in the electric double layer, creating an "anion-enriched/solvent-depleted" configuration. This reduces the probability of solvent molecules directly accepting electrons at the interface to undergo side reactions and, under the influence of the electric field, homogenizes the Li⁺ deposition flux, effectively suppressing dendrite growth^[47]. In terms of the transport mechanism, Li⁺ migration in the LHCE system no longer relies primarily on cooperative migration with solvent molecules; instead, it can achieve more efficient transport via "structural hopping" within the anion-dominated coordination network^[46]. Although the tt⁺ value of LHCEs is not necessarily higher than that of HCEs, their lower viscosity, superior wettability, and the transient coordination effects potentially induced by the diluent result in a significant reduction in the Li⁺ desolvation energy barrier and interfacial charge transfer resistance (RR_ct), leading to an overall improvement in migration efficiency^[48]. Ultimately, at the macroscopic level, LHCEs achieve multi-scale synergistic optimization ranging from molecular solvation structures and interfacial film evolution to ion transport kinetics and battery performance, enabling LMBs to exhibit superior cycling stability and safety under extreme conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature.

In terms of diluent design, recent studies have found that some diluents with specific functional structures not only possess traditional dilution effects but also synergize with anionic solvation structures through interfacial reactions, regulating the film-forming mechanism at the molecular scale. Chen et al.^[55]employed difluoroethylene carbonate (DFEC) as a diluent to construct an LHCE, achieving synergistic regulation of the solvation structure and interfacial film formation (Figure 3)^[55].

Although DFEC does not participate in Li⁺first solvation shell coordination, its preferential reduction behavior can generate an inorganic film rich in LiF and Li₂O on the lithium anode interface, while simultaneously promoting DFOB^-dissociation, enhancing SEI formation efficiency. Raman spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations indicate that AGGs account for over 60% in this system, exhibiting significant anion-dominated characteristics. The CEI formed by this LHCE on the battery cathode side effectively suppresses lattice distortion and structural degradation of the LCO cathode; the Li||LCO battery retains 91.2% of its capacity after 300 cycles at 4.5 V. Furthermore, Zhang et al.^[56]introduced 2,2-bis(trifluoromethyl)-1,3-dioxolane (BTFMD) as a functional fluorinated diluent. This molecule promotes anion FSI^-aggregation through a "coordination exclusion" effect, inducing the formation of an anion-dominated local high-concentration structure, which provides a film-forming pathway for subsequent preferential anion decomposition to construct an inorganic-enriched film layer. Experimental results show that BTFMD undergoes controlled reduction at the lithium metal anode interface, generating an inorganic film rich in LiF and Li₂O, enhancing the stability and compactness of the SEI. On the NCM811 cathode side, it also promotes the construction of a LiF-rich dominated CEI, effectively suppressing interfacial stress accumulation and cathode deformation. This electrolyte system enables LMBs to retain 80.3% of their capacity after 250 cycles under 4.4 V conditions, demonstrating excellent high-voltage adaptability and interfacial protection effects.

In terms of the molecular structure design of the primary solvent, the solvent's coordination ability, polarity, and oxidative stability have a decisive impact on Li⁺'s solvation structure and film-forming pathway. Among these, strong-coordinating primary solvents can enhance the coordination stability between Li⁺and anions, thereby promoting the preferential decomposition of film-forming anions at the interface, further improving the compositional controllability and selectivity of the interfacial film^[57]. Chen et al.^[58]selected triethyl phosphate (TEP), which has a strong coordination effect with Li⁺, as the primary solvent, BTFE as the diluent, and lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) as the lithium salt to formulate a flame-retardant LHCE (Figure 4)^[58].

In this system, the local high-concentration solvation structure formed by Li-FSI-TEP is well retained in the electrolyte, creating a stable interfacial environment on the lithium metal anode surface and effectively suppressing the continuous occurrence of side reactions. Ultimately, this system enables the Li||NMC622 battery to retain 97% of its capacity after 600 cycles at a voltage platform of 4.4 V, demonstrating high-voltage compatibility and interfacial stability. Similarly, Liu et al.^[59]employed diglyme (DGDME) as the primary solvent, combined with LiFSI and TTE to construct a high-temperature stable LHCE. DGDME can coordinate with Li⁺to form a tighter coordination structure, while simultaneously promoting the aggregation of FSI^-and constructing a more stable CIPs/AGGs solvation structure. Furthermore, the hydrogen transfer reaction occurring between DGDME and FSI^-further induces preferential anion decomposition, forming structurally uniform inorganic film layers on both the cathode and anode. Under high-temperature and high-voltage conditions of 60 °C and 4.5 V, this electrolyte system enables LMBs to retain 95.6% of their capacity after 250 cycles, demonstrating the interfacial regulation capability of this LHCE under extreme environments.

In addition to the coordination ability of the main solvent, the type and coordination characteristics of anions in lithium salts are also key factors determining solvation configuration and interfacial behavior. In some LHCE systems, researchers^[60]have employed functional single lithium salts such as LiFSI, utilizing their FSI^-anions' strong coordination ability to guide Li⁺to preferentially form CIPs and AGGs with anions, constructing an anion-dominated local high-concentration solvation structure. This generates an inorganic SEI film rich in LiF on the anode surface, enhancing interfacial compactness and stability. However, FSI^-has limited oxidative stability, making it difficult to provide sufficient interfacial passivation protection on the high-voltage cathode side. To address the multiple demands of both anode and cathode interfaces, researchers have recently proposed a "dual-salt strategy." By introducing anions with complementary interfacial behaviors (such as PF₆^-, DFOB^-, etc.), this approach synergistically regulates solvation structures and film-forming pathways, expanding the application window of electrolytes. For example, Wang et al.^[61]constructed a dual-salt LHCE system (D-LHCE) consisting of 2 mol/L lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) and 1 mol/L lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) dissolved in fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC)/DMC, with TTE as a diluent. This system significantly enhanced oxidative tolerance while improving interfacial stability. In this system, PF₆^-and TFSI^-participate jointly in Li⁺coordination, enhancing the formation of aggregated solvation structures. Simultaneously, they induce the formation of SEI and CEI rich in inorganic components at the interface, improving anode film compactness and cathode corrosion resistance, respectively. After 300 cycles at a high voltage of 4.6 V, the capacity retention rate of LMBs using this electrolyte system reached 72.5%, demonstrating excellent high-voltage interfacial compatibility and long-term stability. Furthermore, to further regulate the anion coordination environment and construct functional interfacial films, researchers have also attempted to introduce anionic functional additives into LHCEs. He et al.^[62]employed a quasi-ionic liquid additive based on NO₃^-, [Li(15-crown-5)]NO₃, which improved the solubility of NO₃^-in ether-based solvents and promoted its participation in the construction of the Li⁺solvation shell. At the anode interface, NO₃^-is preferentially reduced to form an inorganic SEI rich in Li₃N, effectively improving interfacial ionic conductivity. This accelerates the desolvation and migration processes of Li⁺at the interface, enabling the Li||LCO full battery to achieve 250 cycles with zero degradation at -20 °C, demonstrating the synergistic regulation potential of anionic additives under extreme conditions.

In summary, by precisely regulating the solvation structure, LHCEs can induce the formation of compositionally stable and structurally dense SEI and CEI films at the molecular scale, thereby significantly enhancing the interfacial stability and cycle life of LMBs under extreme conditions. Through the cross-scale linkage mechanism among solvation, interface, and performance, LHCEs provide a material foundation and theoretical support for the stable operation of LMBs under extreme operating conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature. The next section will focus on the application of LHCEs under typical extreme conditions, combining representative systems and performance metrics to further analyze the structure-activity relationships in their component design and adaptive regulation.

4 Application of LHCEs in LMBs under extreme conditions

LHCEs can regulate the solvation structure to achieve stable construction of the interfacial film, effectively enhancing the stability of the electrode-electrolyte interface. In practical applications, this strategy has demonstrated significant advantages under extreme conditions such as high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature.

4.1 LHCEs for LMBs under high pressure

Under high-voltage conditions, LMBs often face issues such as electrolyte oxidation, irreversible phase transitions in the cathode, and corrosion of the aluminum current collector, which significantly limit their cycling stability and safety performance under high-voltage operating conditions. To ensure the oxidative stability of the electrolyte, selecting a solvent system with high anti-oxidation capability is particularly crucial. Among these, carbonates with high oxidative stability as solvents can effectively avoid the problem of easy electrolyte oxidation under high voltage; however, carbonates exhibit poor compatibility with lithium metal anodes, leading to lithium dendrite growth and low Coulombic efficiency. To address this inherent limitation, researchers have attempted to introduce functional diluents to regulate the solvation structure and interfacial behavior. Chen et al.^[28]proposed a localized high-concentration electrolyte system using DMC as the main solvent and BTFE as the diluent (1.2 mol/L LiFSI/DMC:BTFE = 1:2, molar ratio). By introducing the "inert" diluent BTFE, this system constructs localized high-concentration regions without disrupting the Li⁺-DMC solvation structure, inducing FSI^-to preferentially reduce and form an LiF-rich SEI film, significantly improving the density of lithium deposition and cycling reversibility. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations show that this LHCE induces dendrite-free, dense bulk Li deposition. Furthermore, under high voltages greater than 4.5 V, the addition of BTFE effectively mitigates corrosion of the aluminum current collector. Although the introduction of BTFE helps improve the interfacial stability of LMBs under high voltage, it itself has certain limitations. On one hand, the high cost of BTFE limits its large-scale application; on the other hand, BTFE is prone to thermal decomposition at high temperatures, releasing strongly acidic byproducts such as hydrogen fluoride (HF). These acidic substances not only affect the overall acidity and alkalinity of the electrolyte but also corrode the CEI, destroying its chemical stability and structural integrity. HF can react with metal oxides, causing inorganic components in the CEI (such as LiF, Li₂CO₃, etc.) to dissolve or reconstruct, thereby weakening the interface's blocking effect on electrons and ions, inducing continuous side reactions, and accelerating cathode interface degradation and capacity fading. Therefore, Zhang et al.^[63]proposed designing an electrolyte using fluorobenzene (FB), a fluorinated aromatic hydrocarbon, as the diluent. The FB molecular structure lacks β-H sites, significantly inhibiting HF generation via the β-H elimination pathway, reducing electrolyte acidity, and thereby alleviating the crossover dissolution effect of transition metals between the cathode and anode (Figure 5a)^[63]. Meanwhile, this electrolyte system can induce the formation of an LiF-rich CEI film under high-voltage conditions, effectively suppressing structural phase transitions, stress cracking, and metal dissolution in the NCM712 cathode. This system achieved stable cycling of Li||NCM712 pouch cells for 80 cycles under a high voltage of 4.4 V, with a capacity retention rate of 80%. Additionally, the system exhibits a high interfacial exchange current density (j₀ = 0.28 mA/cm²), indicating its relative stability towards the lithium metal anode, which helps improve the cycling life of LMBs under high-voltage conditions.

Furthermore, although sulfone solvents with higher antioxidant potentials exhibit excellent high-voltage tolerance, they suffer from poor compatibility with metallic lithium, high viscosity, and poor wettability, making them difficult to directly apply in practical battery systems. Zhang, Xu, et al.^[64]To address these issues, a high-concentration electrolyte system based on LiFSI and tetramethyl sulfone (TMS) was designed, with TTE introduced as a diluent to construct a sulfone-based LHCE. The introduction of TTE effectively reduces the electrolyte viscosity while maintaining an anion-rich solvation structure, thereby improving wettability and ionic conductivity. This localized high-concentration system promotes FSI^- preferential reduction, inducing the formation of an inorganic SEI rich in LiF and Li₃N, which effectively suppresses adverse reactions between TMS and the metallic lithium anode, enhancing lithium deposition density and cycling Coulombic efficiency (reaching 98.8%). Meanwhile, TTE participates in constructing the protective film on the cathode side, significantly alleviating the corrosion of the aluminum current collector by traditional high-concentration sulfone electrolytes under high voltage. At 4.9 V, this LHCE enables the Li||LNMO full cell to exhibit stable cycling performance and an average Coulombic efficiency of up to 99%.

In contrast, although ether-based main solvents possess excellent anode compatibility, their low oxidation potential limits their direct application in high-voltage systems. To address the issue of ether solvents being prone to oxidation at 4 V, Zhao et al.^[50]selected benzotrifluoride (BTF) as a diluent and 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) as the main solvent to construct a novel LHCE. Among them, BTF-LHCE exhibits an extended voltage stability window of up to approximately 4.7 V, indicating its application potential in high-voltage systems (Figure 5b)^[50]. Li||NCM622 batteries with this LHCE can cycle for 300, 140, and 70 cycles at voltages of 4.3, 4.4, and 4.6 V, respectively, with capacity retention rates all exceeding 80%. Zhang et al.^[65]approached the problem from the perspective of additives; they added 1,3,5-trifluorobenzene (3FB) as an additive to an LHCE using DME as the main solvent. The addition of 3FB mitigated side reactions between the lithium metal anode and the electrolyte, generating a more uniform and dense SEI, which improved Coulombic efficiency and battery cycle life. Furthermore, as an additive, 3FB is preferentially reduced to form some low-fluorine aromatic hydrocarbons; these derivatives are further oxidized on the cathode surface to form a stable CEI, significantly alleviating interfacial side reactions in LMBs under high-voltage conditions. In the optimized electrolyte, Li-LCO pouch cells exhibited excellent cycling stability at a cutoff voltage of 4.5 V, with a capacity retention rate as high as 80% after 600 cycles.

In addition to functional additives that can mitigate interfacial side reactions, the anion structure of lithium salts and their combination methods in LHCE systems also play a key role in regulating film-forming mechanisms and ion migration behavior, thereby significantly enhancing the interfacial stability and cycle life of LMBs under high-voltage conditions. Lin et al.^[66]designed a dual-salt LHCE system based on the sulfone solvent TMS and ethyl acetate (EA), selecting LiTFSI and lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) as lithium salts, and adding FEC to further improve performance (the electrolyte is named TEH-2m-LiTD+10%FEC). Among these, LiDFOB participates in film formation, inducing B-F/B-O-rich components to construct a high-strength CEI. Furthermore, FEC, which has a lower highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) value, can enhance the overall oxidation resistance of the electrolyte. FEC can also synergize with LiDFOB to optimize the composition of the interfacial film, improving the cathode's oxidation resistance and the current collector's corrosion resistance. Meanwhile, this system significantly enhances Li⁺transference number, reduces the ion migration and charge transfer impedance of the SEI/CEI layers, achieving synergistic regulation of high-voltage interfacial structural stability and Li⁺transport kinetics. This system enables Li||NCM523 batteries to achieve a capacity retention rate of 89% after 200 cycles at 4.6 V.

4.2 LHCEs for LMBs at high temperatures

The co-degradation of the interface and bulk induced by high temperature is considered one of the important reasons for the rapid performance deterioration of LMBs. Specifically, on the one hand, high temperature destroys the structural stability of the SEI/CEI, promoting intensified interfacial side reactions and hindering Li⁺'s normal deintercalation and deposition; on the other hand, conventional electrolytes are prone to volatilization and decomposition at high temperatures, leading to decreased conductivity and further weakening interfacial stability. The combined effect of the interface and bulk significantly accelerates the battery failure process. Therefore, constructing a new electrolyte system that simultaneously possesses thermal stability, the ability to suppress side reactions, and interfacial protection efficacy has become one of the key strategies to address high-temperature challenges. To break through this limitation, Pan et al.^[67]designed a non-flammable LHCE system (LiDFOB-TEP-TTE) using TEP as the main solvent, which combines excellent high-temperature adaptability and thermal stability. TEP has a high thermal decomposition temperature and good flame-retardant properties^[68], while simultaneously promoting the coordination between the lithium salt anion DFOB^- and Li⁺ through the regulation of the diluent TTE, inducing the formation of an anion-dominated CIPs/AGGs solvation structure. In this system, the interfacial film generated by the preferential reduction of DFOB^-is rich in inorganic components such as LiF and B-O. This interfacial film possesses high modulus and thermal stability, effectively suppressing lithium dendrite growth and side reactions at high temperatures to prevent internal short circuits, enabling the Li||NCM523 full cell to maintain excellent performance during cycling at 70 °C, with capacity retention significantly superior to traditional carbonate systems. Propylene carbonate (PC), characterized by a high boiling point, low volatility, and good oxidative stability, can also be used to construct high-temperature LHCE systems. Luo et al.^[69]first constructed an anion-dominated solvation structure by introducing high-concentration LiFSI, reducing the concentration of free PC molecules at the interface and suppressing their adverse reduction reactions on the surface of the lithium metal anode; subsequently, the diluent TTE was introduced to achieve synergistic regulation of the main solvent and diluent regarding solvation structure and interfacial film-forming behavior. This LHCE system induces the formation of a dense inorganic SEI rich in LiF and Li₃N on the lithium anode surface, while also forming a stable CEI on the high-voltage cathode side, significantly enhancing interfacial stability and electrolyte thermal safety. The Li||NCM622 battery retained 85% of its capacity after 100 cycles at 55 °C. These strategies primarily optimize the overall solvation environment through the thermal stability and coordination characteristics of the main solvent; however, maintaining continuous stability of the electrode interface during long-term high-temperature cycling remains a major challenge.

Therefore, starting from the interface level, directly constructing a thermally stable interfacial layer has also become a key breakthrough direction. Liu et al.^[66]utilized the Li⁺coordination ability of the dual oxygen sites in DME molecules to construct stable CIPs/AGGs solvation structures, promoting preferential anion-derived film formation and creating a dense, LiF-rich SEI, thereby achieving 85% capacity retention after 200 cycles for the Li||LCO system at 55 °C. Building on this, Zhang et al.^[59]further introduced DGDME with stronger coordination ability as the main solvent, aiming to enhance the stability of the solvation structure and the selectivity of interfacial reactions (Figure 6a)^[59]. The presence of DGDME enhanced the coordination stability between Li⁺and FSI^-, and induced the preferential reduction of FSI^-to generate a uniform and dense inorganic film layer. Under high-temperature conditions of 60 °C, the Li||NCM523 battery retained 95.6% of its capacity after 250 cycles, demonstrating excellent high-temperature cycling stability.

On the other hand, the type and structure of the lithium salt itself directly determine the composition of the interfacial film and the stability of thermally induced reactions. Compared with single lithium salt systems, the dual-salt strategy expands the coordination modes of the solvation structure by introducing a second anion, further regulating interfacial film-forming behavior, and demonstrating superior interfacial stability, especially under high-temperature conditions. Zhao et al.^[70]In the constructed LiTFSI+LiDFOB dual-salt LHCE system, LiDFOB can regulate the reduction pathway of FSI^-, promoting the formation of beneficial film-forming components such as LiF, Li₃N, and Li_xNO_y. The addition of the TTE diluent also helps form a dense and uniform SEI, significantly improving the reversibility of lithium deposition. This system enables the Li||NCM523 cell to achieve a capacity retention rate of 85% after 200 cycles at 80 °C, with an average Coulombic efficiency exceeding 98.5%. Building on this, Luo et al.^[71]further constructed a triple-salt LHCE system composed of LiTFSI, LiDFOB, and lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF₄), using DME/2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl difluoromethyl ether (TDE) as the solvent and diluent combination to form a stable multi-anion solvation sheath structure. The three lithium salts synergistically participate in coordination within the solvation sheath and dominate interfacial reactions, promoting the generation of CEI and SEI films rich in inorganic components such as LiF and Li₃N on the cathode and anode surfaces, exhibiting excellent thermal stability and resistance to side reactions.

In addition to regulating the structure and ratio of lithium salts, functional additives also play a key role in enhancing the high-temperature interfacial stability of LHCE systems. Meng et al.^[72]revealed the CEI failure mechanism of the LiFSI-DME-TTE system at 80 °C through in situ and post-analysis methods. FSI⁻ thermal decomposition releases free radicals that attack the α-H in DME molecules, triggering chain side reactions and generating HF, which subsequently destroys the originally stable LiF-rich interfacial film. By introducing the acid scavenger DODSi, the HF generation pathway is effectively blocked, promoting densification of the interfacial film and significantly extending the cycle life of Li||NCM811 batteries at high temperatures (Figure 6b)^[72]. This study highlights the potential of additives in LHCEs to synergistically regulate solvation structures and interfacial film-forming behavior, providing an effective strategy for constructing interfacial structures with greater thermal stability.

4.3 LHCEs for LMBs at low temperatures

In low-temperature environments, LMBs often face issues such as sluggish Li⁺migration kinetics, difficult Li⁺desolvation, and uneven lithium deposition, which severely restrict their application in extreme environments such as cold regions or high altitudes. To address challenges like decreased conductivity and limited interfacial kinetics at low temperatures, researchers typically optimize electrolyte components to improve system performance. Common strategies include selecting main solvents with low viscosity and low solvation energy, or introducing diluents with weak coordination ability to promote Li⁺migration and desolvation processes. Zhang et al.^[73]employed cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME) as a solvent, utilizing its loose coordination characteristics with Li⁺to design an electrolyte that enhances the low-temperature performance of batteries (Figure 7a)^[73]. CPME forms a loose, weakly coordinated solvation structure with Li⁺, which helps construct anion-dominated CIP/AGG structures, effectively reducing the desolvation energy barrier and improving ion transport efficiency at low temperatures. Furthermore, the anion-rich solvation structure promotes the formation of an inorganic-rich SEI, effectively suppressing the formation of lithium dendrites. This electrolyte system enables the battery to exhibit excellent Coulombic efficiency (95%) at -60 °C (Figure 7b)^[73]and good cycling stability. In contrast to the above, Ruan et al.^[74]reduced the coordination strength between the solvent and Li⁺by using a diluent. They selected the strong solvent DME as the main solvent for the electrolyte and introduced 2H,3H-decafluoropentane (HFC) as a diluent to reduce the coordination strength between Li⁺and the solvent, thereby making the Li⁺desolvation process more efficient. Among these, HFC increases the interaction between Li⁺and anions (such as FSI^-), promoting the formation of an anion-dominated solvation structure. The addition of HFC reduces the viscosity of the electrolyte, further improving its fluidity and the migration efficiency of Li⁺. Moreover, at -40 °C, this LHCE-HFC exhibits no significant phase transition. Simultaneously, the anion-rich solvation structure influences the interfacial chemistry on the lithium metal side, inducing the formation of an LiF-rich SEI. This SEI possesses high mechanical strength and stability, effectively reducing dendrite growth and enhancing battery stability, with particularly outstanding performance at low temperatures. The Li||LFP cell retains 89.6% of its capacity after 200 cycles at -20 °C.

In low-temperature environments, single lithium salt electrolytes often suffer from unstable solvation structures, leading to poor ionic conductivity and degraded battery performance. To address this issue, Zhao et al.^[66]selected LiTFSI and LiDFOB, which exhibit high ionic conductivity and excellent low-temperature performance, as lithium salts to construct a dual-lithium-salt LHCE. By combining these two lithium salts, the solvation structure of the electrolyte was significantly improved, and the Li⁺desolvation energy barrier was effectively reduced, promoting the efficiency of ion migration at low temperatures. This LHCE remains liquid and maintains good ionic conductivity even at -80 °C, enabling Li||NCM523 batteries to undergo 200 rapid charge-discharge cycles at 1C under -40 °C, demonstrating excellent low-temperature performance. In addition to regulating the solvation structure at low temperatures by introducing a dual-lithium-salt system, the introduction of functional additives has also been proven to be an effective regulation strategy, which not only optimizes the coordination relationship between solvent and salt but also further stabilizes the interface structure and enhances ion migration efficiency. Tu et al.^[75]constructed a DOL-based LHCE using 1,3-dioxolane (DOL) as the main solvent and TTE as the diluent, ingeniously introducing lithium nitrate (LiNO₃) as a multifunctional additive to address the problem of DOL being prone to polymerization under high-concentration salt conditions. The strong coordination between LiNO₃and DOL not only suppressed the ring-opening polymerization reaction of DOL but also enhanced the solubility of LiFSI by reducing the compatibility between the solvent and the diluent, thereby constructing an anion-rich solvation structure. This structure further induced the formation of an SEI rich in inorganic components such as LiF, Li₃N, and LiN_xO_yon the surface of the lithium metal anode, effectively improving the Li⁺interfacial migration efficiency and deposition uniformity. This LHCE enabled Li||NCM811 batteries to stably cycle for 60 cycles at -40 °C, with a capacity retention rate as high as 92.11%.

In summary, through component synergistic optimization, LHCEs demonstrate significant advantages in interfacial stability and transport kinetics regulation under extreme conditions of high voltage, high temperature, and low temperature. Typical systems have achieved precise control over film formation mechanisms, side reaction suppression, and Li⁺ion migration efficiency across multiple environmental windows, significantly enhancing the cycle life and operational safety of LMBs. Benefiting from their excellent environmental adaptability and tunable structure-property relationships, LHCEs are expected to serve as a key electrolyte solution supporting the practical application of high-energy-density LMBs.

5 Conclusion

In recent years, the rapid development of LHCEs has provided significant technological breakthroughs for achieving the cycling stability and safety of LMBs. This article discusses the development, optimization, and uniqueness of LHCEs, and summarizes research progress in this field regarding the performance of LMBs under extreme conditions. Although LHCEs have achieved remarkable results in enhancing lithium metal battery performance, numerous challenges remain in both fundamental theoretical research and practical applications. Looking ahead, research on LHCEs is likely to focus on the following key directions.

(1) Exploration of novel diluents: Currently, inert diluents commonly used in LHCEs are mostly fluorinated reagents, such as fluorinated ethers and fluoroaromatic hydrocarbons. However, these reagents typically suffer from drawbacks including low boiling points, high volatility, and high costs, which limit their large-scale application in LMBs. Therefore, developing novel diluents with wide liquid ranges, low density, low viscosity, low cost, and excellent electrochemical stability will help construct low-energy-barrier and stable interfacial passivation layers, ensuring the long-term stable operation of batteries.

(2) Development of new lithium salts: LiFSI and LiTFSI are commonly used as lithium salts in LHCEs. Compared with traditional LiPF₆, these lithium salts have a lower degree of commercialization, complex production processes, and higher costs, while the requirement for high concentration further exacerbates the cost issue. In addition, LiFSI and LiTFSI pose a risk of corroding aluminum foil, which is unfavorable for application in high-voltage cathode systems. The introduction of fluorinated diluents in LHCEs may reduce the dielectric constant of the electrolyte, imposing higher requirements on the dissociation capability of lithium salts. Therefore, developing new lithium salts and ingeniously designing their anionic functional groups to improve salt dissociation and conductivity, while optimizing production processes to reduce costs, is of great significance for promoting the practical application of LHCEs.

(3) Exploration of new mechanisms: A deep understanding of the complex interactions among anions, cations, and solvents in the bulk phase of LHCEs helps guide the scientific design of electrolyte components. Regarding the bulk phase of electrolytes, it is necessary to clarify the structure-activity relationships between chemical composition, solvation structure, and physicochemical properties, while simultaneously ensuring excellent physicochemical properties and efficient mass transport characteristics of the electrolyte. In terms of interfacial reactions, there is an urgent need to thoroughly investigate interfacial electrochemical decomposition kinetics, construct interfacial reaction models, and quantitatively describe interfacial chemical compositions. Through these theoretical and mechanistic studies, LHCEs can be designed and optimized more precisely.

(4) Application of new characterization technologies: Advanced experimental characterization methods are key to deepening the understanding of LHCEs. Traditional techniques such as Raman spectroscopy (Raman), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) have provided strong support for establishing the chemical foundations of electrolytes. However, to deeply understand the complex interactions within electrolytes at the atomic level, reliance on more advanced characterization methods is still necessary, such as two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D NMR), differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), and cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM). Furthermore, computational chemistry methods, such as molecular dynamics simulations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, also provide important theoretical support for revealing complex solvation structures in electrolytes.

In summary, the emergence of LHCEs has opened new pathways for the development and research of high-performance secondary lithium metal batteries. By decoupling the bulk properties of the electrolyte from interfacial reactions, they achieve both efficient mass transport and interfacial stability. In the future, with the continuous emergence of new technologies and materials, LHCEs are also expected to further enhance the overall performance of lithium metal batteries under extreme conditions.

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Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52377208)

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1 Introduction

2 Failure Mechanisms and Core Challenges of LMBs under Extreme Conditions

2.1 Interface degradation and structural deterioration under high-pressure conditions

2.2 Interface-bulk co-degradation and thermal runaway induced by high temperature

2.3 Transport inhibition and dendrite runaway under low-temperature conditions

3 LHCEs and Solvation-Interface Cross-Scale Regulation Mechanism

4 Application of LHCEs in LMBs under extreme conditions

4.1 LHCEs for LMBs under high pressure

4.2 LHCEs for LMBs at high temperatures

4.3 LHCEs for LMBs at low temperatures

5 Conclusion

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