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Research Progress on Self-Healing Materials in the Aerospace Field

Jianfeng Zhang , Qingqing Li , Fengli Zhang , Zhongquan Wan , Ke Wang , Chunyang Jia

Progress in Chemistry ›› 2026, Vol. 38 ›› Issue (6) : 1093 -1111.

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Progress in Chemistry ›› 2026, Vol. 38 ›› Issue (6) : 1093-1111 DOI: 10.7536/PC20250905
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Research Progress on Self-Healing Materials in the Aerospace Field
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Abstract

When spacecraft operate in extreme space environments over extended periods—subjected to atomic oxygen erosion， high and low temperature cycling， micrometeorite impacts， and other hazards—their surface materials are prone to microcracking and structural damage， which can compromise mission safety and lifespan. Self-healing materials offer innovative solutions for spacecraft surface protection by mimicking the healing mechanisms found in living organisms. This review systematically summarizes recent research progress in self-healing materials for spacecraft surfaces， focusing on intrinsic and external photothermal self-healing systems， as well as electromagnetic-induced healing technologies. Intrinsic self-healing materials achieve repair through reversible breaking and reformation of dynamic covalent bonds—such as disulfide bonds， borate ester bonds， and imine bonds—as well as non-covalent interactions like hydrogen bonds and coordination bonds. Among these， materials such as epoxy vitrimers and dynamic polyurethanes demonstrate excellent recyclability and healing efficiency via topological rearrangement networks. Externally assisted self-healing systems typically rely on microcapsules that encapsulate healing agents or on nanofillers such as POSS and carbon nanotubes. These materials achieve healing efficiency through crack-triggered release of healing agents or via synergistic effects enabled by nanoparticles. Electromagnetic-induced self-healing materials， on the other hand， utilize Joule heating or magnetic response mechanisms to remotely activate the healing process. When combined with conductive or magnetic nanofillers—such as graphene or Fe3O4—they enable precise and localized repair. Studies indicate that advances in photothermal conversion， optimization of dynamic bonds， and multifunctional integrated designs have significantly improved the environmental adaptability of such materials. For example， silicon-based nanocomposites achieve both anti-atomic oxygen properties and self-healing capability through surface passivation layers， while magnetic microcapsules enable targeted repair under magnetic guidance. Although the feasibility of existing self-healing materials has been validated in laboratory and simulated environments， several challenges remain for practical aerospace applications. These include ensuring the stability of dynamic bonds， maintaining durability under extreme conditions， and balancing healing efficiency with mechanical performance.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic aerospace photothermal self-healing materials

2.1 Shape memory type self-healing

2.2 Reverisible bond type self-healing

2.3 matrix melting type self-healing

3 External aid type aerospace photothermal self-healing materials

3.1 Microencapsulated type self-healing

3.2 Nano-filler type self-healing

4 Electromagnetic induced aerospace self-healing materials

4.1 Electrically induced self-healing

4.2 Magnetically induced self-healing

5 Conclusions and outlook

Graphical abstract

Keywords

spacecraft coating / surface micro-cracks / self-healing materials / photothermal synergy mechanism / electromagnetic induction mechanism

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Jianfeng Zhang, Qingqing Li, Fengli Zhang, Zhongquan Wan, Ke Wang, Chunyang Jia. Research Progress on Self-Healing Materials in the Aerospace Field. Progress in Chemistry, 2026, 38(6): 1093-1111 DOI:10.7536/PC20250905

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1 Introduction

In the aerospace field, the reliability and durability of materials are key factors determining spacecraft performance and mission success. During operation, spacecraft face extreme environmental conditions, including drastic temperature changes, space debris impacts, atomic oxygen erosion, as well as ultraviolet and cosmic ray radiation. These factors can damage material structures, degrade material properties, and thereby affect the normal operation and mission completion of spacecraft. Therefore, developing materials capable of self-repairing and restoring performance under these harsh conditions is of great significance for improving spacecraft safety and extending their service life.Figure 1shows a spacecraft in orbit. Damage to the surface materials of the spacecraft begins with tiny cracks too small to be seen by the naked eye; these cracks sometimes exist beneath the material's surface, making them undetectable. Once formed, these cracks propagate as the material ages and deteriorates. To prevent the spread of these micro-cracks, new materials need to be developed that can sense the occurrence of damage and rapidly complete self-repair.[1]. Such materials with self-healing capabilities are of great significance for extending the lifespan of spacecraft.
The extreme multi-modal environment faced by spacecraft during on-orbit service imposes strict requirements on self-healing materials that differ from ground applications, with their reliability directly determining the long-term operational performance of the spacecraft. In terms of thermal properties, materials must withstand periodic extreme thermal cycling from -170 °C to 120 °C; their self-healing mechanisms must remain active across a wide temperature range, and the thermal expansion coefficient of the healing products must match that of the matrix to avoid thermal stress concentration. Regarding mechanical properties, materials must achieve damage repair while maintaining structural strength (tensile strength ≥ 100 MPa), and their healing interfaces must possess the capability to withstand shock waves and residual stresses generated by hypervelocity impacts (>10 km/s) from space debris. In terms of radiation protection, the self-healing system must avoid inducing bond scission in organic materials and degradation of optical properties under the simultaneous effects of solar ultraviolet radiation (wavelength 200~400 nm) and high-energy particle irradiation (electrons ≥ 1 MeV, protons ≥ 100 keV). For the low Earth orbit (180~650 km) environment, the material surface must form a stable healing layer resistant to atomic oxygen (with a flux reaching 1015 atoms cm-2·s-1) erosion; its healing products should avoid generating volatile oxides that cause mass loss, preventing oxidative ablation and micro-scale phase transition damage to the material surface which could trigger surface micro-cracks. Additionally, dielectric charging effects induced by space plasma can generate instantaneous high potential differences, causing electronic device breakdown and material electro-aging, while hypervelocity impacts (velocity >10 km/s) from micrometeoroids and space debris can induce mechanical damage such as surface spalling, threatening structural integrity. It is worth noting that these effects do not exist in isolation; the coupling of space environmental effects imposes even more stringent requirements on healing conditions. For instance, the vacuum environment constrains the application of oxygen-dependent healing reactions, the plasma environment requires the healing process to avoid charge accumulation, and microgravity conditions limit the transport behavior of liquid-phase healing agents. Therefore, it is necessary to establish multi-scale coupled models to guide the design of synergistic environmental protection for spacecraft materials.
Self-healing materials are smart materials capable of repairing themselves when damaged. Mimicking the principle of biological injury repair, these materials can autonomously heal damage, offering a new approach to preventing potential hazards during material use and extending service life. The design concept of such materials is inspired by the self-repair capabilities of living organisms, such asFigure 2shows[2], aiming to mimic the ability of biological tissues to self-heal after injury.
In the aerospace field, research and application of self-healing materials have become an active area of study. The goal is to develop materials capable of automatically repairing micro-cracks and damage in space environments, thereby reducing reliance on manual intervention, lowering maintenance costs, and enhancing the autonomy and reliability of spacecraft. In recent years, significant progress has been made in research on self-healing materials for spacecraft surfaces. From self-healing coatings based on microcapsule technology to smart polymers with reversible chemical reactions, and further to self-healing nanocomposites realized through nanotechnology, various innovative material systems are continuously being proposed and tested. These materials have not only demonstrated self-healing capabilities under laboratory conditions but have also proven their potential application value under simulated space environment conditions. This review aims to outline the research progress of self-healing materials for spacecraft surfaces, providing guidance and reference for their design and development.

2 Intrinsic space photothermal self-healing materials

Photothermal self-healing coating materials utilize photothermal responsive materials to convert light energy into thermal energy, thereby achieving photothermal conversion. This triggers the self-healing effect and accelerates the coating's repair time by raising the local temperature of the coating to its glass transition temperature (Tg) or melting temperature (Tm) or above, to activate the shape memory effect, repair covalent and non-covalent bonds, or promote the release of self-healing agents from microcapsules into the damaged coating areas[3]. As another external stimulus for self-healing, light offers advantages compared to other triggering mechanisms: in addition to being remote and non-contact, light possesses the advantage of localized healing, meaning it can precisely irradiate damaged areas to achieve repair, demonstrating true damage restoration[4].

2.1 Shape memory type

Shape memory polymers and their composites (SMPs and SMPCs), as a class of novel smart materials, can respond to specific external stimuli and remember their original shape[5], and can be used to prepare novel self-healing coatings.Figure 3ashows the monomer structure of the novel epoxy system, through which shape-memory self-healing coatings are obtained via thermal stimulation. The core repair condition for this type of thermally stimulated repair lies in the need to heat the material to itsTgorTmor above, to impart sufficient mobility to the molecular chains; the repair time typically ranges from several minutes to several hours. Its thermal stability is directly determined by the matrix polymer'sTg; the service temperature must be belowTgto maintain shape fixation, which limits its application in high-temperature aerospace components (such as supersonic aircraft skins). Given that direct heating is unsuitable in vacuum environments, alternative stimulus methods, such as light, can be employed to achieve the shape memory effect. Dong et al.[6]synthesized raspberry-like polydopamine@polypyrrole core-shell structured (PDA@PPy) nanoparticles as photothermal conversion materials based on epoxy resin materials via in situ chemical oxidative polymerization. The morphology of the nanoparticles was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). As photothermal agents, the PDA@PPy nanoparticles stimulate the shape memory effect and self-healing of the epoxy resin coating upon irradiation with 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) light. The photothermal conversion temperatures of the nanoparticles and the coating were recorded by thermocouples. The results indicate that the coating containing 5 wt% PDA@PPy nanoparticles exhibits optimal self-healing performance. The repair conditions of this system rely on 808 nm NIR irradiation, where the optical power density directly determines the local heating rate and final temperature, serving as a key parameter for achieving effective repair. Its advantage lies in enabling localized and precise repair, avoiding prolonged exposure of the entire component to high-temperature environments, making it more suitable for on-orbit maintenance of spacecraft or the protection of heat-sensitive electronic components.
Epoxy coatings have potential for spacecraft self-healing due to their good transparency, which ensures sufficient light transmittance for photothermal repair. To date, most self-healing epoxy coatings are based on microcapsule networks. Their shape memory repair mechanisms are asshown in Figure 3b. However, the structure and properties of epoxy systems can be easily tailored by selecting different curing agents, offering an opportunity to achieve self-healing through specific structural designs of the epoxy resin network. TheTgand crosslinking density can be switched by varying the ratio of diamines acting as curing agents to monoamines acting as chain extenders. Fang et al.[4]introduced m-xylylenediamine (MXDA) as a diamine curing agent, 4-(heptadecafluorooctyl)aniline (HFOA) as a hydrophobic monoamine chain extender, and aniline black (AB) as an organic photothermal compound into a bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (DGEBA) epoxy resin network. The chemical structures and thermal properties of epoxy resin networks with different MXDA/HFOA ratios were investigated, along with the hydrophobicity and thermally responsive self-healing behavior of the prepared coatings. As MXDA, the curing agent, was gradually replaced by HFOA, theTgand crosslinking level of the epoxy resin network were reduced, thereby enabling thermally induced healing at highTgbased on crack closure as well as chain diffusion and re-entanglement. Aniline black was incorporated as a photothermal compound in the coating, achieving healing under focused sunlight. This study clearly demonstrates how repair conditions and thermal stability can be regulated through molecular design. By adjusting the curing agent ratio, the material'sTgcan be actively lowered to a repair temperature window more easily reachable via the photothermal effect (e.g., 80–120 °C). Meanwhile, the upper limit of the long-term service temperature after repair is also determined by its final network structure (such as crosslinking density) andTg, providing possibilities for designing self-healing coatings suitable for different temperature regimes in space environments (such as low-Earth orbit satellites and deep-space probes). Photothermal self-healing coatings based on thermoset polyurethane systems are also a research hotspot in aerospace self-healing. Bai et al.[7]incorporated graphene oxide (GO) into thermoset polyurethane to prepare a composite material exhibiting light-induced shape memory effects, solid-state plasticity, and self-healing properties. Based on the significant photothermal effect of GO, this composite showed excellent light-induced shape memory performance under 1.4 W/cm2near-infrared light irradiation, with a shape recovery rate exceeding 95%. Furthermore, due to photothermal conversion triggering urethane exchange reactions within the polymer network, the composite also exhibited light-induced plasticity and light-induced self-healing capability under 2.5 W/cm2NIR light irradiation. Scratch healing tests indicated that 85% of the lost strength could be recovered after the light-induced self-healing process. This work explicitly identifies the energy conditions required for repair (1.4 W/cm² for shape memory, 2.5 W/cm2for self-healing), providing direct parameter basis for engineering applications. Its repair mechanism relies on dynamic urethane exchange reactions at high temperatures (typically >150 °C); therefore, while this material system possesses good thermal stability, it also demands higher energy input for repair. In contrast, Chen et al.[8]prepared ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA)/polycaprolactone (PCL)/polypyrrole (PPy) blend composites using a simple melt blending method. In this system, PPy nanoparticles served as photothermal fillers selectively distributed within the PCL component, enabling the EVA/PCL mixture with a co-continuous structure to exhibit excellent light-induced shape memory performance with a 100% shape recovery rate. Benefiting from the superior photothermal effect of PPy nanoparticles and the melting and recrystallization behavior of linear EVA and PCL chains, the blend composite also demonstrated outstanding light-induced self-healing performance against various forms of damage, achieving considerable healing efficiencies of 85.68%, 94.63%, and 86.49% for bent, scratched, and cut samples, respectively. Compared with traditional thermally induced self-healing shape memory composites, NIR irradiation can not only remotely manipulate the shape memory behavior of these composites but also accurately and selectively repair damaged areas without significantly affecting the properties of intact regions. This makes their repair faster and more energy-efficient; however, the long-term heat resistance of the material is correspondingly lower, making it potentially more suitable for internal or low-temperature environments of spacecraft rather than high-temperature external structures. Addressing the difficulty in recycling traditional thermoset epoxy resins, Zhou et al.[9]successfully prepared a series of linear thermoplastic epoxy polymers with shape memory characteristics via bulk polymerization. The chemical structures of thermoplastic epoxy shape memory polymers without using PPGDGE or using PPGDGE are asshown in Figure 3a,b. Jamil et al.[10]systematically summarized recent research advances in polymer nanocomposites regarding shape memory and self-healing properties.Figure 3cillustrates the self-healing mechanism based on the shape memory effect for novel epoxy systems.

2.2 Reversible Key Type

The reversible bond-based photothermal self-healing process is a chemical reaction induced by thermally reversible dynamic bonds. Dynamic bonds are categorized into two types: reversible covalent bonds (e.g., acylhydrazone bonds and disulfide bonds) and non-covalent bonds (e.g., hydrogen bonds, coordination bonds, electrostatic attraction, host-guest interactions, π-π stacking, etc.). Reversible bonds in the damaged area can promote coating healing through bond breaking and reformation. Theoretically, this repair method does not consume any coating components[11]; therefore, this concept can be developed to achieve repeated repairs. Typically, dynamic non-covalent bonds (such as hydrogen bonds) allow room-temperature repair but exhibit lower mechanical strength; whereas dynamic covalent bonds (such as disulfide bonds and DA bonds) require external stimuli (such as heat or light) to trigger reversible bond reactions, resulting in superior thermal stability and mechanical properties after repair.
Traditional materials typically achieve a combination of flexibility and strength through irreversible covalent bonds between molecular chains. Once these covalent bonds break, they cannot be reconstructed; therefore, traditional materials do not possess self-healing properties. For intrinsic self-healing systems constructed using reversible chemical bonds, there is often an incompatibility between elasticity and self-healing characteristics. Generally, self-healing materials obtained via reversible strong covalent bonds exhibit high mechanical strength and good elasticity, but they require external stimuli for repair and have low repair efficiency. In contrast, self-healing materials derived from weak non-covalent interactions can heal without any external stimuli, but they suffer from poor mechanical strength and are easily broken.
Dynamic non-covalent bonds possess relatively weak bond strength, making them highly prone to rapid dissociation and recombination under mild conditions. This unique attribute endows materials with the potential for self-healing at room temperature. Importantly, the self-healing process does not involve the breaking and forming of chemical bonds, thereby minimizing the occurrence of adverse side reactions. Consequently, there has been a significant surge in the development of room-temperature self-healing materials incorporating various dynamic non-covalent bonds. Secondly, while dynamic non-covalent bonds enable rapid self-healing under milder conditions due to their weak bonding strength and fast recombination, the inherent weakness of these bonds often compromises mechanical strength. To address this issue, selecting appropriate bonds and designing multi-scale structures are crucial. Enhancing crosslinking strength and reducing environmental sensitivity are key to developing robust non-covalent bond-based room-temperature self-healing materials. Fu et al.[12]improved the self-healing behavior of polybenzoxazine synthesized solely based on dynamic ester bonds. By reacting succinic anhydride with the phenolic hydroxyl groups of polybenzoxazine, a novel self-healing polybenzoxazine was synthesized. The self-healing characteristics of the network were observed via optical microscopy, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and fatigue tests. The results indicate that bulk-state self-healing can be achieved in polybenzoxazine thermosets through ester bond exchange. The thermoset network behaves as a thermoplastic at 140 °C in the presence of zinc acetate (Zn(Ac)2), exhibiting self-healing properties even after multiple damage-healing cycles. This study demonstrates that the introduction of dynamic ester bonds successfully achieves self-healing in polybenzoxazine; the network realizes self-healing via ester bond exchange at 140 °C catalyzed by zinc acetate. Ha et al.[13]Novel self-healing polyurethane random copolymers (r-PUDS), obtained by controlling soft segments of polycarbonate diols with different molecular weights and introducing reversible disulfide bonds into the main chain, exhibit stable, stretchable, transparent, and self-healing properties. In addition to enhanced mechanical properties (breaking stress of 26 MPa and breaking elongation of 630%), flexible r-PUDS films also demonstrate excellent self-healing capability, with healing efficiency reaching up to 98% and recovery efficiency exceeding 92%.
Dynamic borate esters and boron-nitrogen (B-N) coordination are also commonly used to prepare self-healing polymers. Zhao et al.[14]introduced dynamic borate esters as crosslinking sites into a copolymer of poly(4-vinylphenylboronic acid-co-butyl methacrylate) (PBAMA) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to prepare a series of covalently crosslinked polymers with room-temperature self-healing capabilities and strong mechanical properties, asshown in Figure 4a. Introducing an electron-donating hydroxyl group at the ortho position of the borate ester molecule can effectively promote the dynamic exchange process between borate ester molecules. Meanwhile, the ortho hydroxyl group acts as a free binding site that can recombine with dissociated boronic acid molecules, thereby increasing the rate of dynamic bond breaking and reformation of the borate ester molecules, asshown in Figure 4b. Compared with traditional borate esters, this novel borate ester molecule possesses both intramolecular and intermolecular dynamic exchange interactions at room temperature, providing a new type of dynamic borate ester crosslinking point for covalently crosslinked polymers.
Ding et al.[15]Borate esters and nitrogen-containing electron donors capable of forming coordination bonds were simultaneously introduced into the polyurethane backbone to prepare a series of supramolecular polyurethane elastomer materials (SPUEs) based on dynamic borate esters and boron-nitrogen (B-N) coordination interactions. B-N coordination bonds constructed intra- and intermolecular supramolecular interactions within the polyurethane elastomers. After the cut surfaces of the material were brought into contact and left at room temperature for 36 h, the tensile strength recovered to 5.2 MPa; when the cut surfaces were moistened with water, the repair speed significantly accelerated, and after 36 h of repair, the tensile strength reached 8.6 MPa.
Hydrogen bonding is a common physical interaction that is much weaker than covalent and ionic bonds. When a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom, the hydrogen atom carries a positive charge while the highly electronegative atom carries a negative charge. Through electrostatic interactions between the hydrogen (hydrogen donor) and the highly electronegative atom (hydrogen acceptor), reversible crosslinks are formed between different polymer chains. Wang et al.[16]utilized hot pressing to prepare a supramolecular polymer-based atomic oxygen protective coating capable of "spontaneously" repairing cracks extending deep to the substrate. The supramolecular polymer constituting this coating uses cage-like polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane derived from 2-ureido-4[H]-pyrimidinone (UPy) derivatives (UPy-POSS) as monomers, which are interconnected via quadruple hydrogen bonds between UPy groups. The excellent atomic oxygen protection capability of the UPy-POSS supramolecular polymer coating stems from the dense silica passivation layer formed upon oxidation of UPy-POSS on the coating surface, while the hydrogen bonds between UPy-POSS endow the atomic oxygen protective coating with superior ability to repair physical damage. The main advantage of this coating lies in its ability to achieve self-healing at room temperature without external stimuli; however, its long-term operating temperature is limited by the thermal stability of the hydrogen bonds.
The uniqueness of dynamic covalent bonds lies in their ability to undergo controlled dissociation under specific external stimuli (such as temperature or light) and reform after the stimuli are removed or conditions are restored, thereby enabling autonomous self-healing of materials. The core of this process is the thermodynamic reversibility of dynamic covalent bonds: when local energy accumulation occurs in a material due to external damage (such as micro-cracks), the dynamic bonds preferentially break in regions of stress or energy concentration, releasing the mobility of molecular chain segments and prompting polymer chains or functional groups to migrate toward the damage interface; subsequently, under stimulus conditions (such as cooling or removal of light), the broken bonds reform, restoring the cross-linking of the molecular network, filling defects, and rebuilding the structural continuity of the material. The reversible behavior of dynamic covalent bonds depends on the matching between their inherent energy barriers and external input.
Traditional epoxy resins, due to their permanently cross-linked structure, are difficult to self-heal, reprocess, and recycle, leading to the generation of substantial epoxy waste. To address this issue, researchers have begun exploring the introduction of dynamic covalent bonds to develop epoxy Covalent Adaptable Networks (CANs). These networks can undergo bond exchange reactions under external stimuli, thereby enabling the rearrangement of network topology. Yang et al.[17]reviewed the development and application progress of epoxy vitrimers and their composites cross-linked by dynamic covalent bonds. By introducing dynamic covalent bonds such as transesterification, disulfide exchange, imine bonds, and siloxane equilibrium, vitrimers endow the network with topological rearrangement capabilities while maintaining the mechanical properties of thermosetting materials, thus possessing characteristics like reprocessability, self-healing, weldability, shape memory, and recyclability. Reversible covalent bond exchange reactions achieve network topological reconstruction upon heating, thereby imparting self-healing and recyclable properties to the materials. The repair and reshaping of vitrimers typically require heating above their topology freezing temperature (Tv), but their cross-linked networks can maintain thermal stability and mechanical properties comparable to traditional thermosetting materials below Tv. Singh et al.[18]employed all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to systematically investigate, for the first time under thermomechanical loading, the impact of the probability of dynamic disulfide bond exchange reactions on the thermal expansion and mechanical behavior of epoxy-based vitrimers. The researchers constructed a model composed of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (DGEBA) monomers and 4-aminophenyl disulfide (AFD) cross-linkers, simulating the reaction acceleration effect near Tv using a temperature-dependent S-S bond exchange probability equation (sigmoidal function). The results showed that dynamic cross-linking significantly increases the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material above Tv, leading to softening of the stress-strain response at high temperatures; by simulating the thermal cycling repair process after carbon nanotube (CNT) pull-out damage, it was confirmed that the elastic modulus of the repaired material could recover to 98% of its original state. This model, by fixing the reaction distance threshold, avoids the limitations of traditional MD simulations that require dynamic adjustment of cutoff parameters, providing a new method for quantitatively predicting the recycling and self-healing performance of vitrimers. The dynamic covalent bond exchange characteristics of thermosetting vitrimers endow them with self-healing and recyclable properties, but their slow response speed restricts practical applications.
Zhou et al.[19]Through innovative molecular design, a cyclotriphosphazene-based epoxy vitrimer material possessing both self-healing and flame-retardant properties was developed. To address the issues of non-recyclability and flammability in traditional thermosetting materials, a novel cyclic-linear cyclotriphosphazene epoxy resin (CTP-EP) was synthesized via a five-step reaction. A dynamic cross-linked network was constructed using a diamine curing agent containing aromatic disulfide bonds (DTDA). Its self-healing mechanism is asFigure 5ashown. This dynamic epoxy resin exhibits excellent multiple self-healing capabilities; based on the radical exchange mechanism of disulfide bonds at high temperatures, its tensile strength retention rate remains as high as 89.8% after three hot-pressing repair cycles. Meanwhile, the cyclotriphosphazene skeleton endows the material with superior thermal stability and flame retardancy, achieving a char yield of 43.3% at 800 °C. This multifunctional material provides a new solution for the sustainable development of fiber-reinforced composites in the aerospace field.
Ma et al.[20]Using 4-aminodiphenyl disulfide (APDS) with different compositions as curing agents, a series of benzoxazine (PCT) vitrimers with self-healing properties were prepared. Due to the introduction of disulfide bonds, the dynamic exchange activation energy (Ea) of the PCT vitrimers ranged between 47.8 and 58.2 kJ/mol, which facilitates healing at relatively mild temperatures. The dynamic exchange of disulfide bonds and flexible segments endowed the PCT with self-healing characteristics. As the amount of APDS increased, the self-healing efficiency of the glass fibers after the first healing, in terms of tensile strength, increased from 57% to 88%. This work provides a feasible pathway for the preparation of self-healing benzoxazine vitrimers. Shao et al.[21]proposed an epoxy vitrimer polymer derived from castor oil (ASB-ECO), characterized by a dual dynamic network achieved through rationally designed ester-amine bonds and an aromatic Schiff base-copolymerized crosslinker architecture. This molecular design strategy effectively enhanced the mechanical properties of the plant oil-based vitrimer polymers and endowed them with controllable self-healing capabilities under photothermal conversion. The 1.0-ASB-ECO system exhibited dynamic characteristics,Eaof 37.25 kJ/mol,Tvof 123.13 °C. The material possesses a photothermal conversion efficiency (61.42%) and can achieve a 100% self-healing rate under visible light irradiation. This study on biomass-based epoxy vitrimers realizes the combination of high mechanical performance, sustainability, and photothermal self-healing properties.
Furthermore, Sarrafan et al.[22]developed a multifunctional lightweight composite foam that innovatively combines a shape-memory vitrimer matrix with silver-plated and nickel-plated hollow glass microspheres (HGMs), successfully integrating conductivity, ferromagnetism, shape memory, self-healing, and recyclability. The material exhibits low density (porosity approximately 29.4%) yet significant mechanical properties, with compressive strength showing good adaptability in both the glassy and rubbery states. Through a dynamic covalent bond network, the material achieves shape recovery upon electrothermal triggering (recovery stress reaching 95% of the programmed stress) and realizes self-healing via dynamic exchange reactions. Tanaya et al.[23]investigated the self-healing capability and mechanical properties of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites based on an aromatic thermosetting copolyester (ATSP) vitrimer matrix. The study demonstrated that healing achieved by curing at 280 °C for 2 h allowed the composite to recover its original shape and fracture toughness, exhibiting significant mechanical property restoration and indicating its potential for high-temperature environments. Notably, double cantilever beam (DCB) tests revealed a healing efficiency of approximately 109%, with fracture toughness recovering to near-original levels (approximately 289 J/m2), attributed to transesterification-driven bond reorganization. These findings highlight the potential of ATSP for high-temperature environments and in-situ repair applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries.
As dynamically cross-linked network materials, the impact behavior of vitrimers under high strain rates and the influence mechanism of catalyst concentration are of significant importance for engineering applications. Xiang et al.[24]systematically investigated the effects of catalyst concentration (0.1~10 mol%) and strain rate (2000~4000 s-1) on the dynamic mechanical properties of epoxy/fatty acid-based vitrimers using a split Hopkinson pressure bar experimental system. The study shows that the material exhibits significant strain rate sensitivity; when the strain rate increases from 2000 s-1to 4000 s-1, the yield stress increases by an average of 18%, and the strain softening effect is enhanced. Catalyst concentration significantly influences the mechanical response by regulating the dynamic transesterification reaction rate, with samples containing 10 mol% catalyst exhibiting optimal performance. Their yield stress reaches 73 MPa (at 4000 s-1), and the energy absorption density is improved by 56% compared to samples with 0.1 mol%. Molecular mechanism analysis indicates that high-frequency mechanical waves generated during high strain rate loading promote molecular chain flow and dynamic bond exchange, which explains the enhanced energy dissipation capacity of high catalyst concentration samples under impact loading. This study provides key experimental evidence for the design of dynamically cross-linked networks for impact-resistant materials in the aerospace field. Luo et al.[25]successfully constructed a dual dynamic covalent bond system (REB) featuring both dynamic β-hydroxy ester bonds and boroxine networks by cross-linking rosin-based glycidyl ester epoxy resin with 3-aminophenylboronic acid. The resulting material exhibits a tensile strength of 60.9 MPa, a Young's modulus of 712.3 MPa, and a Tgof 83.2 ℃, with performance metrics comparable to commercial bisphenol A-type epoxy resins, while maintaining thermal stability above 170 ℃. This dynamic network achieves a self-healing efficiency of 97.8% in Young's modulus after heat treatment at 120 ℃ for 30 min. On the other hand, carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset composites have been widely used in automotive, aerospace, and other fields, but they face significant challenges due to their difficulty in reprocessing and recycling carbon fibers. To address this issue, Zhang et al.[26]developed a degradable vitrimer material based on free amine-catalyzed aromatic dynamic disulfide bond exchange, effectively solving the problems of non-reprocessability and difficult recycling associated with traditional carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset composites. This study introduced AFD as both a cross-linking agent and catalyst during the curing process of epoxy resin (GTE) to construct a dynamic disulfide covalent network, with its repair effect shown inFigure 5b. Compared with existing disulfide bond vitrimers, this material demonstrates significant performance advantages, requiring only 14 s for stress relaxation at 180 ℃, while possessing high mechanical properties (tensile strength of 94.62 MPa, flexural modulus of 2970 MPa) and self-healing efficiency (96.25%). Furthermore, the synergistic effect of high disulfide bond concentration and small molecule degradation products enables the resin to completely degrade within 5 h in a dithiothreitol-containing N,N-dimethylformamide solution, reducing the time by 84% compared to similar materials. This work provides new insights for the development of sustainable composites in the aviation field.
The non-recyclability and damage accumulation issues of thermosetting polymers in aerospace composites limit their sustainable application. Li et al.[27]developed a recyclable high-performance carbon fiber reinforced composite (CFRC) based on renewable tung oil, aiming to address the non-degradability and recycling challenges of traditional thermoset resin-based composites. By crosslinking a self-catalytic tung oil-derived acid curing agent (TTMA) with bisphenol A epoxy resin (DGEBA) or 4,4'-methylenebis(N,N-diglycidylaniline) (TGDOM), an epoxy vitrimer network rich in dynamic ester bonds, hydroxyl groups, and tertiary amine structures was constructed. This network achieves topological rearrangement at high temperatures via dynamic transesterification reactions (DTER), endowing the material with excellent mechanical properties (DGEBA-TTMA tensile strength 47.65 MPa, elongation at break 16.5%), thermal stability (initial degradation temperature reaching 294~342 ℃), and self-healing and reprocessing capabilities, with its self-healing effect asshown in Figure 5c. The study also found that TGDOM-TTMA exhibits good stress relaxation characteristics due to high hydroxyl and tertiary amine concentrations (relaxation time of 328 s at 180 ℃); furthermore, resin degradation was achieved under mild conditions (100 ℃) in ethanolamine via amidation reactions, enabling the complete recovery of carbon fibers with nearly 100% retention of mechanical properties. This research provides an innovative strategy for designing green, recyclable high-performance CFRCs, promoting the sustainable development of composites.
Polyurethane is one of the most produced polymers globally, with production exceeding 18 million tons in 2019[28]. Transesterification-based self-healing materials utilizing polyurethane have become a research hotspot. Felsenthal et al.[29]demonstrated that polyurethane covalent adaptable networks (PU CANs) based on urethane exchange possess self-healing properties. The addition of a urethane exchange catalyst (Zr(tmhd)4) to CAN films generates dynamic urethane bonds, thereby enabling stress relaxation. Applying force to the dynamic network induces bond exchange reactions, thus relaxing the applied stress. Stress relaxation analysis (SRA) conducted at typical post-processing temperatures provides insight into the reprocessability of dynamic networks. When SRA was performed at 160 °C, the CAN films fully relaxed stress within 30 min, whereas the control film only partially relaxed stress under the same conditions.
The Diels-Alder (DA) reaction is a thermally reversible reaction between a dienophile and a conjugated diene, producing cyclohexene derivatives. At higher temperatures, thermally reversible DA adducts can undergo the retro-Diels-Alder reaction (rDA). However, the main limitation of traditional DA reaction-based self-healing is that the healing process typically requires external stimuli to trigger reversible reactions across the entire area. In this case, damaged regions cannot be precisely repaired. To expand their practical applications, there is an urgent need to develop a method that endows DA systems with self-healing capabilities to accurately achieve in situ healing. Compared with other stimuli (such as heat, ultrasound, or magnetic fields), light offers advantages in remote control, enabling local stimulation of specific areas under ambient conditions without interfering with other components in aerospace equipment. Wang et al.[30]prepared a polyurethane composite film (PUDA@Ag) with a reversible network based on furfuryl-functionalized polydopamine nanoparticles (PDA NPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), asFigure 6shows. Under infrared light irradiation, cracks on PUDA healed completely within 30 s, achieving localized and precise repair while avoiding global thermal stimulation. Under the same conditions, cracks in pure PU without DA bonds only slightly narrowed but did not disappear. Under thermal or NIR stimulation, DA crosslinks are undone via the rDA reaction to generate free PU chains, which fill defects through the diffusion and entanglement of freely floating polymer chains.

2.3 Intrinsic matrix fusion type

The self-healing of photothermal matrix melting-type materials is based on the phase transition from solid to liquid when the temperature reaches the melting point. Based on this principle, incorporating photothermal fillers into a thermoplastic coating matrix allows for the convenient preparation of self-healing coatings. During the healing process, the photothermal fillers generate heat via the photothermal effect, causing the adjacent polymer matrix to melt and flow, thereby filling damaged areas such as cracks and scratches in the coating to restore its barrier properties. Therefore, effective healing requires that the temperature generated by the photothermal effect must reach or exceed the melting point or softening point of the matrix. The advantage of such materials lies in their ability to be healed multiple times; however, their usage temperature and upper working temperature limit are typically lower than the thermal transition temperature of the matrix to avoid unintended softening. It is evident that the properties of the self-healing material and its compatibility with the photothermal material are crucial for the self-healing performance. There is a contradiction between self-healing efficiency and mechanical properties. Obtaining a material that possesses both excellent mechanical strength and high self-healing efficiency remains a challenge. Interest in homogeneous self-healing materials has been growing because they do not require combination with healing agents, thereby avoiding many thorny issues, including complex pre-embedding processes, compatibility, and controlled sustained release. Healing agent-assisted self-healing materials are typically thermosetting and support only one self-healing cycle. Self-healing elastomers can repair damaged interfaces through dynamic molecular interactions.
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is a rubber-like polymer with thermoplastic properties, allowing it to be processed and reprocessed at high temperatures. TPU is a linear copolymer composed of alternating soft and hard segments.[31]. Energy conversion efficiency is a critical characteristic of photothermal self-healing materials. Yao et al.[32]prepared an ultra-tough thermoplastic polyurethane based on a multi-hydrogen bond chain extender,Figure 7a,bshow the synthesis and chemical structure of the polyurethane and the reinforced hydrogen bonds within the polyurethane network, respectively. It exhibits a Young's modulus of up to 105.87 MPa and a tear energy of 27 kJ·m-2, demonstrating excellent autonomous self-healing performance at room temperature, with a healing efficiency reaching 87.6% within 6 hours. This indicates that the polyurethane material has broad application potential in the aerospace field. Kazemi-Lari et al.[33]utilized polyurethane-based photothermal self-healing materials to achieve true damage system self-repair by perfecting an integrated system capable of actively detecting damage and enabling repeatable autonomous healing. The polyurethane network is responsible for achieving autonomous crack closure by leveraging its shape memory characteristics and the matrix's intrinsic melt-based self-healing ability. This strategy, combining shape memory (crack closure) with melt flow (crack filling), reduces the requirement for overall melt depth, helping to maintain the structural stability of the material before and after repair. Ha et al.[34]synthesized a self-healing polyurethane material and fused it with improved reduced graphene oxide coated with polydopamine (PDA-rGO).Figure 7cillustrates the photothermal self-healing process of PDA-rGO triggered by near-infrared laser. Dopamine spontaneously oxidizes and polymerizes on the GO surface in a weakly alkaline aqueous solution at room temperature, successfully synthesizing polydopamine-coated GO. The introduction of PDA-rGO significantly enhances photothermal conversion efficiency, meaning that effective melt repair processes can be triggered with lower NIR light power or shorter irradiation times. Xiao et al.[35]prepared a polyurethane composite material (RGO-TPU) with a tensile strength of 37.4 MPa, which exhibits excellent self-healing performance under infrared radiation, with a healing efficiency greater than 99% and a healing time of less than 160 s. This indicates that melt-based self-healing of polyurethane matrices has potential applications in aerospace self-repair.

3 Exogenous aerospace photothermal self-healing materials

Compared with intrinsic self-healing systems, extrinsic self-healing systems are widely applicable to polymer composite matrices because they offer broad adaptability to commercial materials without requiring additional chemical structural modifications to the coating materials. These materials can reconstruct new materials in damaged areas or initiate chemical self-healing reactions via catalysts through built-in healing agents without external stimuli, thereby restoring their structure and function. Self-healing coatings embed microcapsules or nanocapsules within the coating, which release healing agents upon damage to automatically repair coating defects. The core triggering condition for their repair is mechanical damage (such as cracks or scratches) causing the microcapsules to rupture. However, the thermal and chemical stability of the microcapsule shells directly determines whether the healing agents can maintain long-term activity during the material's service life, which is key to their engineering application.

3.1 Microcapsule type

Self-healing mechanisms based on microcontainers/microcapsules hold immense application potential for effectively repairing microcracks and enhancing the reliability of polymer coatings on spacecraft, leveraging abundant ultraviolet radiation in space or microcrack damage caused by meteorite impacts. However, UV radiation can also cause premature curing of the healing agents within the microcapsules before self-repair occurs, rendering potential UV-curable healing agents ineffective. Therefore, the most effective self-healing initiation mechanism relies on tiny debris in space; when such debris creates scratches on the spacecraft surface, the embedded microcapsules rupture, allowing the healing agents inside to undergo chemical reactions that fill and repair the microcracks, asshown in Figure 8a[36]. White et al.[36]pioneered the development of autonomously self-healing polymer composites based on microcapsule-encapsulated healing agents. By dispersing urea-formaldehyde microcapsules (particle size 50–200 μm) containing dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) and Grubbs' catalyst within an epoxy matrix, they successfully achieved autonomous crack repair at room temperature. When crack propagation causes the microcapsules to rupture, DCPD fills the crack plane via capillary action, forming a cross-linked polydicyclopentadiene (polyDCPD) network through ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) initiated by the ruthenium-based catalyst. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the repaired film layer uniformly covered the fracture interface, verifying the stability of the catalyst within the matrix and its potential for multiple repairs. This study provides a new strategy for microcrack repair in aerospace composite materials. However, its application is limited by the thermal stability of Grubbs' catalyst, with long-term usage temperatures in air typically not exceeding 80 °C.
Many researchers are dedicated to basic research and exploring the application of extrinsic self-healing microcapsules[37]. For example, Adil et al.[38]discussed microcapsules for various types of self-healing systems. These systems include dual/multi-microcapsule systems, latent microcapsule-healing agent systems, and microcapsule-catalyst systems. Each system has potential applications in self-healing materials and can provide references for self-healing materials on spacecraft surfaces.
Lee et al.[39]developed a light-responsive microcapsule self-healing protective coating system, the innovation of which lies in the ability of the repaired area to maintain viscoelastic properties during crack propagation, thereby avoiding secondary rupture. This study used a mixed system of bis/mono-methacryloxypropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (BMT-PDMS/MMT-PDMS) as the healing agent. By adjusting the mass ratio of the two components (with 1.5:1 being the optimal ratio), the viscoelasticity of the photocured product was controlled, endowing the mixed material with an elastic deformation capacity of 41.4%. The microcapsules were prepared by encapsulating the healing agent with urea-formaldehyde resin, having an average particle size of 488 μm,Figure 8bshows fluorescence microscopy images of the microcapsules, which were embedded in a commercial primer to form a composite coating. AsFigure 8c,dshow, the initial 150 μm crack achieved a self-healing efficiency of 90% after UV curing repair. Hasanzadeh et al.[40]developed a linseed oil/urea-formaldehyde microcapsule self-healing coating containing CeO2nanoparticles via in situ polymerization. This system achieves healing through damage-triggered release and oxidation of linseed oil. The addition of CeO2nanoparticles enhanced the mechanical and thermal stability of the microcapsule shells. The study showed that 55 μm microcapsules (with a CeO2addition amount of 0.04 g) achieved a crack sealing efficiency (SSE) of 99.9% at a concentration of 15 wt%. Electron microscopy analysis confirmed that coatings containing 10% nano-microcapsules could achieve complete sealing of a 70 μm scratch within 60 min. Thanawala et al.[41]developed a self-healing epoxy coating with a urea-formaldehyde shell and linseed oil core by optimizing in situ polymerization process parameters. The study indicated that when the microcapsule content in the coating reached 3 wt%, the scratch healing efficiency was significant; linseed oil filled the cracks within 24 h after scratching, and an oxidized polymer film formed within 48 h. Mechanical property tests showed that the introduction of microcapsules did not affect the initial adhesion or impact resistance of the coating. This research provides key process parameters for the industrial application of linseed oil-based self-healing coatings.
Zhu et al.[42]investigated ultrafast self-healing fiber-based composites containing single-component microcapsules that release cationic catalysts under UV irradiation, effectively repairing coating cracks. Li et al.[43]developed resorcinol-formaldehyde resin microcapsules containing donor-acceptor couplers, which exhibited excellent long-term stability and self-healing performance under UV irradiation. Hia et al.[44]developed a green self-healing epoxy resin microcapsule using alginate as the encapsulation material, preparing microcapsules of different sizes via electrospraying and air atomization methods. The study showed that employing an alginate shell and introducing halloysite nanotubes significantly enhanced the structural integrity and thermal properties of the microcapsules, benefiting long-term storage. Niratiwongkorn et al.[45]investigated self-healing protective coatings based on polyvinyl butyral (PVB)/polypyrrole-carbon black (PPyCB) composites. Through its redox properties and diffusion barrier effect, PPy forms a stable passivation layer upon coating damage, thereby improving the anticorrosion performance of the coating. Furthermore, the addition of graphene further enhanced the protective performance of the composite coating. Koh et al.[46]prepared renewable polyurethane microcapsules containing sorbitol derivatives for self-healing anticorrosive coatings. These microcapsules were fabricated via interfacial polymerization, with diameters ranging from 11 to 38 μm and core content approximately 40 wt% to 45 wt%. Salt spray test results indicated that these microcapsules exhibited significant anticorrosion performance at low inhibitor loadings (25–200 ppm), with rust levels between 0% and 0.47%. Zhang et al.[47]proposed an innovative design scheme for self-healing polymer composites integrating dual-functional microcapsules. Microcapsules with thermal stability were synthesized via urea-formaldehyde in situ polymerization, with cores simultaneously containing linseed oil for lubrication and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) for repair. After embedding these microcapsules into an epoxy matrix, scratch tests and friction experiments demonstrated that the composite exhibited exceptional self-healing performance (volume healing efficiency >96%) and ultra-low friction characteristics (friction coefficient reduced by 92%). During wear, the released DBP activates polymer chain motion through swelling, while the microcapsule cavities effectively capture abrasive particles; combined with the lubricating synergistic effect of linseed oil, this achieves dynamic repair of the friction interface. Following the trigger of healing agent release by friction damage, DBP promotes polymer chain motion via swelling to achieve repair, a process influenced to some extent by ambient temperature. Pulikkalparambil et al.[48]Focuses on organic and inorganic containers encapsulating healing agents. Various organic and inorganic containers, such as micro/nano polymer capsules, cellulose nanofibers, halloysite nanotubes, titanium dioxide nanocontainers, mesoporous silica, hollow glass fibers, and core-shell nanofibers, have been employed as reservoirs for storing self-healing agents.

3.2 Nanofiller type

In the aerospace field, materials face challenges from extreme environments, among which atomic oxygen (AO), the predominant component in low Earth orbit (LEO), causes particularly significant erosion to materials. To address this issue, researchers are dedicated to developing materials with dual functions of atomic oxygen resistance and self-healing to enhance the durability and reliability of spacecraft. The "self-healing" of such materials is actually a passive protection mechanism: under AO exposure conditions, a dense SiO2passivation layer is generated in situ on the material surface. This process typically requires a certain AO flux (dose) to trigger, and the resulting protective layer itself possesses excellent thermal stability. Kausar et al.[49]investigated self-healing nanocomposites, especially their self-healing characteristics when facing harsh environmental conditions such as atomic oxygen erosion. By introducing self-healing agents like nano-carbon and nanoparticles, damage caused by atomic oxygen exposure can be effectively repaired, thereby significantly extending the service life of spacecraft components.
Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) nanoparticles are a class of silica-based nanomaterials. They can serve as polymer reinforcement materials, possessing not only resistance to atomic oxygen erosion but also enabling self-healing of the polymer upon AO exposure.[50]This is because POSS is a nanoparticle with a cage-like structure that, when dispersed in a polymer matrix, can form a silicon-oxygen bond-rich network on the surface. When POSS-reinforced polymers are exposed to atomic oxygen or other oxidizing environments, the organic functional groups on the surface of the POSS particles are oxidized and gradually volatilize. During this process, silicon atoms within the POSS cage structure dynamically form new Si-O bonds with oxygen atoms from adjacent POSS particles or the polymer matrix, thereby forming a dense SiO2protective layer on the material surface capable of withstanding the high-low temperature cycling in the space environment. This dynamic self-healing mechanism allows the material to maintain its structural and performance integrity even during long-term exposure to harsh environments.
Zhang et al.[51]prepared polyimide (PI) composite films containing nano-cage polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane, which exhibited extremely low erosion rates and significant self-healing properties under atomic oxygen exposure. This excellent AO resistance is mainly attributed to the synergistic effect of the POSS components in the matrix and filler, effectively reducing AO erosion of the PI composite films. Upon exposure to AO, an inert silicon oxide or silicate passivation layer forms on the film surface, providing effective protection for the underlying film. Wu et al.[52]investigated an AO-resistant phosphorus-containing polyimide film with self-healing functionality. By introducing nano-cage trisilanolphenyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (TSP-POSS) additives at the molecular level, the AO resistance of the film was significantly enhanced, and the film itself possessed self-healing characteristics in an AO environment. During AO exposure, an inert composite passivation layer containing phosphorus and silicon formed on the film surface; its thermal stability and barrier effects were superior to those of single-component layers, effectively protecting the underlying material from AO erosion. However, achieving more uniform dispersion of POSS nanoparticles within the film remains a problem to be solved. Xu et al.[53]addressed this issue by in situ growing a polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane layer on the PI surface and subsequently depositing a SiO2coating, successfully preparing a composite material with excellent AO resistance. The PI film was first surface-treated to introduce carboxylate groups, followed by the formation of a POSS layer via hydrolysis and condensation reactions in a solution containing γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and tetraethylammonium hydroxide (TEAOH) as a catalyst. This strategy achieves durable protection by pre-constructing the POSS layer and SiO2coating, thereby avoiding delays in the repair process. The thermal stability of the composite coating primarily depends on the outermost SiO2.
The importance of the silicon protective layer in enhancing material resistance to atomic oxygen (AO) and self-healing efficacy provides new insights for selecting materials for LEO spacecraft. Many researchers have developed various self-healing composite materials based on this characteristic of polysiloxanes, offering new ideas and methods for developing high-performance aerospace materials with long-term AO protection capabilities. Many studies involve such mutual compounding to achieve corresponding functions; for example, Miyazaki et al.[54]investigated a polysiloxane-polyimide film with high atomic oxygen resistance and self-healing functionality. Using commercial polysiloxane-polyimide as the matrix material, the film spontaneously forms a protective SiO2layer upon AO irradiation, integrating the advantages of intrinsic AO erosion resistance and extrinsic self-healing to achieve passive triggering and active protection. The stability of its protective layer is comparable to that of SiO2itself. Similarly, Lei et al.[55]studied a polyimide film with high atomic oxygen resistance and self-healing functionality. This film was first modified at the molecular level by synthesizing hyperbranched polysiloxane (HBPSi) and incorporating it into the polyimide chains. As the HBPSi content increased and the AO flux intensified, the mass loss of the HBPSi-polyimide gradually decreased. When the HBPSi content was 29.7 wt%, after 22 hours of AO exposure, its mass loss was only 7.7% of that of the original polyimide,Figure 9ashows scanning electron microscope images of the surface after exposure to AO for different durations. Surface morphology analysis confirmed that the surface of the original polyimide became rough after AO exposure, whereas the HBPSi-polyimide surface remained relatively smooth. When the HBPSi-polyimide was exposed to AO, the surface organic polyimide degraded first, eventually forming a silicon protective layer that achieved surface "self-healing," asshown in Figure 9b. The integrity of the silicon protective layer formed after AO exposure determines the long-term service stability of the material.
Pure polysiloxanes can also be applied in aerospace self-healing materials to achieve dual functions of atomic oxygen resistance and self-healing. Xu et al.[56]investigated a highly uniform flexible polysiloxane coating (Kapton), asshown in Figure 9c. This coating demonstrates exceptional atomic oxygen resistance and self-healing behavior on LEO spacecraft. Prepared using hexamethyldisiloxane as the raw material via plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition, experimental results indicate that after exposure to AO radiation equivalent to 5 years, the coating exhibits low mass loss and a low erosion yield. Furthermore, during AO radiation, the coating forms a SiO2 durable layer, endowing the polysiloxane coating with a "hard shell, soft core" characteristic; its high flexibility enables self-healing functionality,Figure 9dshows the prepared flexible Kapton film, where its excellent flexibility combined with the thermal stability of the SiO2layer demonstrates significant potential for practical applications. This work showcases the practical application and immense potential of flexible polysiloxane self-healing AO protective coatings on spacecraft.

4 Electromagnetic induction-based self-healing aerospace materials

4.1 Electrically inducible

Electrically induced self-healing materials have garnered widespread attention for technological innovations in the aerospace sector. Their unique autonomous repair mechanism achieves damage restoration through electrical stimulation, providing an innovative solution for ensuring the long-term performance of critical spacecraft components. These smart materials utilize electric field response or current stimulation to trigger repair reactions, causing directional changes in their internal chemical or physical structures under external electric fields, thereby achieving self-repair of surface damage. Among these, the self-healing mechanism based on the Joule effect is particularly prominent; it activates repair functions through the thermal effect generated when conductive materials are subjected to electric current, significantly extending material service life and reducing environmental burden. The Joule effect refers to the phenomenon where heat is generated when electric current passes through a conductive material; this thermal energy can activate the material's self-healing mechanism, thereby extending its service life and reducing waste generation. Research indicates that by introducing conductive nanofillers into polymer matrices, such as carbon nanotubes[57], graphene[58], and metal nanowires[59], it is possible to construct composite materials with excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, which can achieve efficient self-healing under Joule heating conditions.
The introduction of conductive nanofillers into polymer matrices has been proven to construct composite materials possessing both excellent electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. Such materials exhibit efficient self-healing capabilities under Joule heating conditions. Early research focused on the development of microcapsule embedding technology and thermal activation mechanisms. Zamal et al.[60]successfully encapsulated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (Figure 10a) and the 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene (5E2N) self-healing monomer within a poly(methylurea-formaldehyde) (PMUF) shell via microencapsulation technology, developing a composite material with both mechanical and electrical self-healing functions. Willocq et al.[61]also developed a self-healing conductive polymer nanocomposite combining a conductive network with dynamic covalent chemical bonds. This material incorporates MWCNTs into a Diels-Alder (D-A) chemistry-based thermoreversible polyester-polyurethane matrix via reactive extrusion, achieving targeted repair of damaged areas. Utilizing a reversible covalent bond network constructed between furan carbonyl and maleimide-functionalized poly(ε-caprolactone) precursors, the addition of 2 wt% MWCNTs enables the material to attain an electrical conductivity of 10⁻2 S/cm. After damage, local heating is generated through the Joule heating effect. When cracks form, the resistance at the crack site can produce temperatures as high as 110 °C under a voltage of 25 V, triggering the dissociation of the crosslinked structure via the retro-Diels-Alder reaction and reconstructing chemical bonds upon cooling; cracks can achieve precise healing within 3 minutes. Its repair temperature window is closely related to the reversible temperature range of the Diels-Alder reaction.
Subsequent electrically triggered self-healing systems emphasize the multidimensional integration of conductive networks and healing functions. Breakthrough progress has been made in research on dynamic chemical bond design and low-energy electrical activation strategies. Wang et al.[62]developed an electrically triggered self-healing conductive film based on the synergistic interaction between aligned carbon nanotubes and a liquid crystal elastomer composite. By combining a highly oriented carbon nanotube layer with a vitrimer matrix containing dynamic ester bonds, this material achieves a dual-mode healing mechanism: electrical healing originates from van der Waals forces during the physical reconnection of carbon nanotubes, while mechanical healing is accomplished through network topological reconstruction induced by ester exchange reactions driven by the electrothermal effect. Asshown in Figure 10b, the film can completely heal holes and scratches within 3 minutes under a voltage of 13 V. The healing process combines the physical reconnection of the CNT network with the electrothermally induced ester exchange reaction of the vitrimer matrix; the latter requires reaching the matrix'sTvor above. This design strategy, which integrates an aligned carbon nanotube conductive network with a dynamic polymer network, provides new insights for developing multifunctional self-healing materials.
Furthermore, Orellana et al.[63]systematically reviewed the research progress on self-healing polymer nanocomposites based on the Joule effect, asshown in Figure 11a. The study emphasizes the potential of such materials in extending service life and environmental sustainability. It points out that intrinsic conductive nanocomposites achieve self-healing through dynamic covalent bonds (such as D-A adducts, alkoxyamines, and Au-S bonds) and ionic interactions, with activation mechanisms relying on the resistive heating effect generated by percolation networks formed by carbon-based or metal nanofillers. The D-A system performs particularly outstandingly; after triggering the reverse D-A bond cleavage and recombination at 100–150 °C, a repair efficiency exceeding 90% can be achieved via the Joule heating effect of MWCNTs or silver nanowires (AgNWs). Supramolecular systems achieve 75%–96% repair through local melting of low-melting-point thermoplastic blends (such as EVA/paraffin), while ion-conducting systems based on brominated butyl rubber (BIIR) reach repair rates of 40%–54%. The study outlines core challenges including maintaining the percolation network during thermal cycling and balancing filler dispersion with conductive mechanisms, emphasizing that intrinsic systems dominate due to their multi-cycle repair capability, distinguishing them from extrinsic systems limited by healing agent reserves. Further research directions focus on adaptability for scaled production and thermal conductivity optimization to address positive/negative temperature coefficient effects during Joule activation.
Sánchez-Romate et al.[64]developed an autonomous self-healing composite based on graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) reinforced epoxy/PCL blends in their study. The material activates the self-healing mechanism via the Joule heating effect, relying on the local thermal effects generated by the highly conductive GNP network upon electrification to induce PCL phase melting and crack filling. Experiments demonstrated that GNP doping significantly enhanced the composite's conductivity (104~105 S/m order of magnitude). Furthermore, the dispersion state of PCL has a dual effect on performance: at lower contents, the insulating domains of PCL optimize the conductive network by reducing GNP agglomeration, while higher contents lead to increased porosity due to higher viscosity, thereby reducing thermal conductivity. By optimizing the ratio, the material can reach a local temperature of 120 ℃ under 100 V voltage, inducing PCL phase melting (Tm is 60 ℃) for flow and crack filling, achieving a crack volume repair efficiency of 70%.
The establishment of the ring-opening metathesis polymerization system revealed the decisive role of conductive filler dispersion and percolation threshold optimization in functional synergy. The design strategy combining dynamic ionic networks with functional fillers was realized through the construction of BIIR-based dynamic ionic network composites. Le et al.[65]developed an intrinsic self-healing system based on BIIR composites by modifying with imidazole derivatives to form an ionic network structure and introducing carbon nanotubes as a conductive reinforcing phase, asFigure 11bshows. Research indicates that imidazolinium cations generated from the reaction between BIIR and 1-butylimidazole (Im-1) construct a reversible physical crosslinking network via dynamic ionic bonds, endowing the material with self-healing properties capable of recovering 450% elongation at break after heating at 120 °C for 10 min. Meanwhile, interactions between CNTs and imidazolinium cations significantly improved filler dispersion and interfacial bonding strength, enhancing the electrical conductivity of the composite. Through the resistive Joule heating effect, this system achieved targeted repair of locally damaged areas, raising the material surface temperature to 110 °C under 38 V voltage and recovering 250% tensile performance within 10 min, asFigure 11cshows.
Zhou et al.[66]The ultra-thin self-healing composite film (LM@MXene/WPU), constructed based on MXene-modified liquid metal (LM), demonstrates exceptional performance in electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and Joule heating. The study employs electrostatic adsorption to coat LM nanoparticles with MXene, forming a continuous conductive network. Similar to silver nanowire networks, this conductive network enables self-healing; the film's surface temperature can rise to 135 °C within 10 seconds under a 5 V voltage. Efficient self-healing is achieved by activating dynamic hydrogen bonds via Joule heating, reaching a healing efficiency of up to 89%.
Loura et al.[67]developed two types of recyclable thermoplastic polyurethane (rTPU) nanocomposites reinforced with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) via chemical vapor deposition (CVD), aiming to provide self-healing materials with ohmic heating capabilities for extrusion-based 3D printing technology. By applying a voltage of 12 V to trigger the Joule effect, partial repair of artificial cracks was achieved at 150 °C. Wen et al.[68]prepared thermoplastic polyurethane (G-CNT/TPU) composites synergistically reinforced with graphene and carbon nanotubes via solution blending to investigate their current-induced self-healing functionality. Experiments demonstrated that graphene content directly affects composite performance; when the graphene content reached 7%, the material achieved a self-healing efficiency of up to 95% under a voltage stimulus of 140 V. The mechanism stems from Joule heat generated by the G-CNT network upon electrification, causing the TPU to melt and reorganize. SEM observations revealed that carbon nanotubes attached to the surface of graphene sheets form conductive pathways, enhancing interfacial bonding and promoting crack repair through heat conduction. This study provides theoretical support for the development of lightweight functional composites for aerospace applications, confirming that optimizing filler content can improve the mechanical, self-healing, and functional properties of materials.
Significant breakthroughs have been achieved in adaptation to extreme environments and aerospace-grade applications. Ryan et al.[69]systematically reviewed the diverse application potential of conductive polymers and their composites (ECPCs) in extreme space environments. The study indicates that by integrating conductive fillers such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, ECPCs utilize the Joule effect (80~140 V) to trigger disulfide bond topological rearrangement in dynamic crosslinked vitrimers, achieving a self-healing efficiency of 82%~93% at damaged interfaces. Gómez-Sánchez et al.[70]developed a multifunctional dual-layer protective coating system based on a Joule effect-activated self-healing mechanism. The inner layer consists of carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy resin with electro-thermal conversion capabilities, while the outer layer employs two self-healing systems: an epoxy resin/PCL blend and an epoxy resin/AFD covalent adaptable network system. Experiments show that under a voltage of 80~140 V, resistive heating can activate the self-healing behavior of the outer layer, and itsTgis approximately 135 °C. Observations using Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM) revealed that cracks in the AFD-based system achieved an 82% healing rate within 25 minutes. Furthermore, the higherTgensures its structural stability at elevated ambient temperatures. The healing efficiency of both self-healing systems exceeds 82%, with resistive heating performing slightly better than traditional convective heating.
Research on electrically triggered self-healing materials has achieved a leapfrog development from single-function exploitation towards multi-functional integration, environmentally responsive intelligence, and reliability under extreme service conditions. Technological advancements in this field continue to drive paradigm shifts in high-end equipment manufacturing, opening up multidimensional application spaces for future industrial development.

4.2 Magnetic induction type

Magnetic self-healing materials exhibit immense application potential in spacecraft surface protection and structural materials due to their unique remote-triggered healing capabilities and excellent mechanical properties. Their healing is remotely triggered by external alternating or static magnetic fields, achieved through magnetothermal or magnetostrictive effects. This non-contact healing method holds significant engineering value, while the material's thermal stability depends on the polymer matrix itself. During on-orbit operation, spacecraft face extreme environmental conditions such as atomic oxygen radiation, micrometeoroid impacts, and drastic temperature fluctuations. Magnetic self-healing materials can achieve remote repair of damage via external magnetic fields, thereby extending the spacecraft's service life. The key synthesis technology for magnetic self-healing materials lies in the organic combination of magnetic nanoparticles and the self-healing matrix. For instance, Cerdan et al.[71]proposed a novel magnetic-driven self-healing elastomer system, embedding Fe3O4nanoparticles into an elastomer based on a Diels-Alder reversible covalent network. Experiments show that under an external magnetic field, composites containing 10%~20% magnetic particles can achieve autonomous closure of large-scale damage (approximately 4.67 mm × 2.42 mm) at 92~97 °C, while maintaining solid-state structural stability. Rheological analysis confirms that the gel transition temperature of the composite is consistent with the matrix material, indicating that the magnetic particles do not alter the Diels-Alder reaction kinetics. Mechanical property tests reveal that composites with 10% and 20% particle content achieve healing efficiencies of 85% and 56%, respectively; their elastic moduli are similar to those of the pure polymer, but higher particle content leads to aggregation effects and performance heterogeneity. The innovation of this method lies in achieving large-damage closure through magnetic driving forces, avoiding the mechanical intervention or liquid flow required by traditional methods, thus providing new insights for self-healing material design. Correspondingly, Sun et al.[72]developed a UV-humidity-magnetic triple-responsive smart insulating material based on nano-functionalized microcapsules. Through magnetic-driven targeted distribution and multiple environmental response mechanisms, efficient self-healing of damage was achieved, as shown inFigure 12a. The material employs Fe3O4@SiO2and TiO2@SiO2nanoparticles to construct a functional shell. The magnetic nanoparticles enable the microcapsules to directionally migrate to vulnerable regions of the material (such as stress concentration zones) under a magnetic field, achieving a fourfold increase in local concentration even at a low doping concentration of 2.5 wt%. The polyurethane acrylate healing agent within the microcapsule core can be triggered to cure in situ by electrical treeing via UV, artificial UV irradiation, or ambient humidity, forming an interpenetrating network structure to repair mechanical cracks (healing rate >90%) and electrical treeing damage. After repair, the material's breakdown field strength remains superior to that of unmodified epoxy resin, demonstrating good comprehensive stability, as shown inFigure 12b. Addressing the protection needs of spacecraft in extreme environments, Sun et al.[73]developed a magnetic field dual-responsive blueberry-like microsphere (MFDR-BLMSs). Through the synergy of magnetic targeted migration and electromagnetic induction heating, non-contact, multi-cycle self-healing of mechanical damage and electrical treeing damage in polymer insulating materials was achieved. The microsphere uses octacosane as a phase-change core, with Fe3O4@SiO2magnetic nanoparticles embedded on the surface to respond to magnetic field driving and generate heat. Inside, it encapsulates silane coupling agent-modified Al2O3nanoparticles, which accelerate the overall melting of the microsphere and inhibit electrical treeing expansion through high thermal conductivity pathways. Experiments show that when the microsphere doping concentration in the composite is 2 wt%, magnetic targeted guidance enables enrichment in vulnerable regions. After 45 days of photothermal aging, the recovery rate of insulation strength after mechanical damage repair reaches 97.57%, and after electrical treeing damage repair, it reaches 92.38%. Compared with traditional microcapsule technology, this method requires no external forced trigger agents, shortens the healing cycle to 90 seconds, and enables long-term repeated healing through multiple electromagnetic induction activations. The study also confirms that modified Al2O3nanoparticles significantly improve the repair precision for sub-micron electrical treeing channels by enhancing internal heat conduction within the microspheres.
In terms of innovation in composite material design, Wang et al.[74]developed a novel self-healing magnetic gradient (SMG) coating by co-encapsulating magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Fe3O4/MWCNTs) and benzotriazole (BTA) inhibitors within polyurea-formaldehyde microcapsules. This coating utilizes magnetic field guidance to orient the distribution of microcapsules, releasing inhibitors at damage sites to achieve "repair" of anti-corrosion functions, with repair efficiency dependent on the environmental medium. Research shows that through external magnetic field control, magnetic microcapsules can directionally migrate near the copper substrate to form a functional gradient layer, significantly shortening the inhibitor release path by up to 6.4 times. To further enhance the comprehensive performance of self-healing composites, researchers have achieved breakthroughs through technologies such as magnetic field guidance, interface engineering, and multi-mechanism synergy. Ren et al.[75]proposed an innovative design for multifunctional magnetic self-healing composite materials. Microcapsules with a metal shell (Ni/PUF/PU@IPDI, NPPI) were prepared via interfacial polymerization and electroless nickel plating techniques and embedded into an epoxy resin matrix. Furthermore, after healing at 80 °C for 10 h, the NPPI-10 microcapsules achieved self-healing efficiencies of 78.6% and 86.6% for scratch depth and width, respectively. Moreover, the directional distribution of the metal-shelled microcapsules (controlled by a magnetic field) significantly improved the release efficiency of the healing agent. This material combines high mechanical strength, self-healing capability, and electromagnetic wave absorption functions, providing new insights for the design of multifunctional integrated composite materials in the aerospace field.
Yilmaz et al.[76]developed a transparent self-healing PDMS material based on the synergy between dynamic covalent bonds and supramolecular networks, featuring tunable mechanical properties suitable for aerospace environments. By introducing urea groups (hydrogen bond donors) and imine groups (dynamic covalent bonds), a dual-network system was constructed, achieving 60% scratch repair in just 80 minutes at 20 °C. Furthermore, a three-dimensional covalent network built by introducing trialdehyde compounds further enhanced mechanical stability at high temperatures, andTgremained at -120 °C, meeting the wide temperature range requirements for aerospace applications. This study validates the enhancement mechanism of dynamic bond synergy on the self-healing performance of space materials, providing a new strategy for developing long-life aerospace coatings.
Li et al.[77]conducted a comprehensive review of the progress in magnetic self-healing polymer composites (MSHPCs), highlighting their synthesis, functional mechanisms, and diverse applications. By integrating magnetic particles (MPs) such as Fe3O4nanoparticles, polymetallic iron oxides, and neodymium magnets (Nd2Fe14B) into self-healing polymer matrices, MSHPCs exhibit enhanced mechanical toughness, magnetic responsiveness, and autonomous self-healing capabilities, leveraging MPs for remote induced heating under alternating magnetic fields or magnet-assisted shape memory effects. The authors emphasized strategies to improve interfacial compatibility between inorganic MPs and organic polymers, such as surface modification and covalent bonding, which are crucial for optimizing performance. Notably, Chen et al.[78]developed a novel biocompatible multi-stimuli responsive shape memory polymer (SMP) based on PCL/TPU/Fe3O4@PDA nanocomposites, asshown in Figure 12c. This material was prepared via a facile solution blending and phase separation method, combining synergistic light and magnetic responses to achieve rapid reconfigurable deformation (triggered by a magnetic field in 1 s) and shape memory-assisted self-healing functionality (90% healing efficiency within 120 seconds). The core of its design lies in embedding dual-functional Fe3O4@PDA nanoparticles into the PCL/TPU matrix; Fe3O4provides magnetic responsiveness, while the PDA coating not only enhances photothermal conversion efficiency but also improves the material's mechanical strength through hydrogen bonding (tensile stress increased from 9.67 MPa to 12.38 MPa). Liu et al.[79]successfully developed magnetically responsive self-healing microcapsules (MS-TO@CA) and PU coatings featuring biomimetic interfacial wet-adhesive patterned microstructures, achieving adsorption, automatic capture, and dispersion of MS-TO@CA based on varying patterned microstructure sizes, particle sizes, and content. COMSOL software was used to simulate magnetic field design and distribution, and the magnetization phenomena of the microstructures were analyzed. An optimal process for preparing novel magnetically responsive self-healing PU coatings was proposed.
Romero-Fierro et al.[80]reviewed magnetic polymer nanocomposites (MPNs) for aerospace applications, highlighting the synergistic combination of polymer matrices and inorganic magnetic nanoparticles such as Fe3O4 and γ-Fe2O3. Magnetic MPNs have become a research hotspot in the aerospace field due to their unique comprehensive properties, combining the lightweight and corrosion-resistant characteristics of polymer matrices with the high conductivity and magnetic response capabilities of magnetic nanofillers (such as Fe3O4, γ-Fe2O3). Cerdan et al.[81]reviewed advances in the synthesis and application of magnetic self-healing composites. As shown in Figure 12d, the material combines the dynamic response characteristics of magnetic nanoparticles with the functional repair capabilities of self-healing polymers, demonstrating multi-stimuli responsiveness, mechanical toughness, and repeatable reparability. Magnetic self-healing material technology provides an innovative pathway for the lightweighting and multifunctionalization of aerospace equipment.

5 Conclusion and Outlook

Research on self-healing materials for spacecraft has rapidly evolved from single repair mechanisms towards multifunctional integration and environmentally responsive intelligence. Intrinsic materials achieve compatibility between high mechanical strength and recyclable repair through dynamic covalent bond networks (such as vitrimers), while dynamic non-covalent bond systems (such as hydrogen bonds and coordination bonds) exhibit outstanding performance in rapid room-temperature repair; extrinsic microcapsule and nanofiller technologies significantly enhance resistance to atomic oxygen and radiation through encapsulation of healing agents or synergistic passivation effects; electromagnetic-induced materials provide new avenues for remote and precise repair via Joule heating or magnetic response mechanisms. However, current research still faces the following key challenges: (1) The long-term stability of dynamic bonds and their reactivity under extreme environments (such as high vacuum and strong radiation) require further optimization; (2) The balance between repair efficiency and mechanical properties remains unresolved, particularly as materials with high cross-linking densities often exhibit low repair rates; (3) Breakthroughs are still needed in the encapsulation efficiency, long-term storage stability, and multiple repair capabilities of microcapsule technologies; (4) Energy consumption control and space compatibility (such as electromagnetic interference resistance) of electromagnetic-induced materials need systematic evaluation.
Future research should focus on the following directions: (1) Dynamic bond design and functional integration: Develop synergistic networks of multiple dynamic bonds (e.g., covalent-noncovalent hybrids), combined with bond energy gradient design, to achieve adaptive self-healing across a wide temperature range; explore photo/thermal/magnetic multi-responsive dynamic chemistry to enhance environmental adaptability. (2) Extreme environment simulation and verification: Establish an accelerated aging experimental platform for coupled multi-factor space environments to evaluate the performance evolution of materials under combined effects such as atomic oxygen, UV irradiation, and thermal cycling. (3) Intelligent monitoring and repair systems: Integrate self-healing materials with fiber optic sensing and conductive networks to construct integrated smart coatings capable of "damage perception-localization-repair," enabling on-orbit health management for spacecraft. (4) Green and sustainable technologies: Develop dynamic polymers based on bio-based monomers (e.g., tung oil derivatives) to promote the biodegradability and closed-loop recycling of self-healing materials, reducing space debris pollution. (5) Scalable preparation and engineering applications: Optimize dispersion processes for microcapsules and nanofillers, and develop molding techniques such as spraying and 3D printing suitable for curved spacecraft structures, facilitating the translation of laboratory results into engineering applications. Through interdisciplinary collaborative innovation and empirical research in space environments, self-healing materials are poised to become a core technology for the next generation of spacecraft surface protection systems, providing reliable support for deep space exploration and long-term on-orbit missions.

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Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(51773027)

State Key Laboratory of Space Environment Interaction with Matters.

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