中文   |   English   |   Email Alert
Fig/Tab
Advanced Search
image

The Application of MXene in Electrochemical Sensor

Yimin Sun , Houshen Li , Zhenyu Chen , Dong Wang , Zhanpeng Wang , Fei Xiao

Progress in Chemistry ›› 2022, Vol. 34 ›› Issue (2) : 259 -271.

PDF
Progress in Chemistry ›› 2022, Vol. 34 ›› Issue (2) : 259-271 DOI: 10.7536/PC210112
research-article
Scan to read & Share
The Application of MXene in Electrochemical Sensor
Author information +
History +
PDF

Abstract

As a new two-dimensional layered material, transition metal carbides or nitrides (MXene) possess great potential in the fields of electrochemical sensing due to their good conductivity, water dispersion, high biocompatibility and stability. Incorporation of MXene with other nanomaterials could create complementary and synergistic effect for the composite, which will effectively improve the sensitivity and selectivity of electrochemical sensors. This paper summarizes the application of MXene based electrochemical sensing platforms for the detection of biomarkers and environmental pollutants in recent years, and the challenges of MXene materials in the fields of electrochemical sensing in the future are also discussed.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 MXene based electrochemical sensors for biomarkers

2.1 Glucose sensors

2.2 H2O2sensors

2.3 Neurotransmitter sensors

2.4 Cancer biomarker sensors

3 MXene based electrochemical sensors for environmental pollutants detection

3.1 Pesticide sensors

3.2 Other environmental pollutants sensors

4 Conclusion and outlook

Graphical abstract

Keywords

MXene / electrochemical sensor / biomarker / environmental pollutant

Cite this article

Download citation ▾
Yimin Sun, Houshen Li, Zhenyu Chen, Dong Wang, Zhanpeng Wang, Fei Xiao. The Application of MXene in Electrochemical Sensor. Progress in Chemistry, 2022, 34(2): 259-271 DOI:10.7536/PC210112

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户 忘记密码

1 Introduction

Transition-metal carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides, or MXene for short, are novel two-dimensional nanomaterials with the general chemical formula Mn+1XnTX[1⇓~3]. Wherein M represents a pre-transition metal, X represents carbon or nitrogen, TX represents a surface group (e.g., — OH/═ O or — F), and n represents an integer from 1 to 3[4⇓~6]. A layer a atom (a is a III or IV main group element) in the MAX phase ceramic material is selectively etched off by using an etchant (such as HF acid or HCl-LiF) to obtain MXene[7⇓~9]. Due to the relatively small number of atomic layers, the thickness of monolithic MXene is even less than 1 nm, while the lateral size can reach micron scale. At present,Ti3C2, Ti2C, Mo2C, V2C,Nb2C, (V0.5Cr0.5)3C2, Ti3CN, Nb4C3 and Ta4C3. Due to their unique properties such as electrical conductivity, surface hydrophilicity, excellent thermal stability, high specific surface area, (31.9 m2·g-1)),MXene have shown promising applications in many fields such as energy storage, transparent conductors, separation membranes, catalysis, electromagnetic interference shielding and biomedicine since their discovery[10][11⇓⇓⇓⇓~16][16,17][18,19][20,21][22,23][24⇓~26].
The principle of electrochemical sensing is to use the electrochemical characteristics of the object to be measured or the specific reaction between the sensitive element and the object to be measured to generate the corresponding electrochemical response signal, and then convert the response signal into an electrical signal that can be identified and detected by the corresponding sensor for analysis and processing. Therefore, it is very important to select the appropriate materials for signal conversion for the construction of sensors with excellent performance. In the case of electrochemical sensors, conventional transducers with low surface area require higher overpotentials in addition to the slow charging kinetics and mass transport limitations of the target analytes[27]. Therefore, the transducer materials required for a high-performance electrochemical sensor device should have high electrical conductivity, large surface area, and good mechanical strength.
In recent years, with the development of nanotechnology, electrochemical (biological) sensors based on nanomaterials have attracted more and more attention. Some traditional two-dimensional nanomaterials have been used to construct sensitive electrochemical sensors, such as graphene and transition metal chalcogenides. However, the development of graphene and transition metal chalcogenides in the field of sensors is limited due to their complex synthesis process, difficult surface functionalization and high hydrophobicity[28,29]. With the continuous development of MXene, its application in the field of electrochemical (biological) sensors has attracted more and more people to study. Compared with traditional two-dimensional materials, MXene has a higher conductivity (850 ~ 2410 S/cm), which can effectively accelerate the electron transport rate[30]. At the same time, the surface of MXene is also rich in -OH/= O or -F, so it can be easily dispersed in common solvents (such as water, ethanol, etc.) And maintain good conductivity, which is very important for applications requiring physical coatings (such as the modification of glassy carbon electrodes). Moreover, due to the presence of these surface groups, the surface of MXene can be easily functionalized and its conductivity is not affected too much, which is very beneficial for the construction of electrochemical (bio-) sensors.
Initially, the preparation of MXene was achieved by etching using HF, and the MXene obtained by this method was multilayered MXene. It was not until 2013 that the properties and potential of MXene as a two-dimensional material were truly demonstrated by inserting large organic molecules into multi-layered MXene and separating the sheets to obtain fewer or single-layer MXene sheets[31]. Few-layer or single-layer MXene nanosheets are thinner and have a larger specific surface area compared to multilayered MXene. The thinner lamellae can effectively improve the conductivity in the vertical direction and the contact between the electrode and the detected substance, while the larger specific surface area can provide more active area for binding proteins and trapping substrates. And multi-layered MXene is also more prone to stacking, which degrades performance. It is clear that the performance of the few-layer or single-layer MXene sheet is better than that of the multi-layer MXene sheet in terms of constructing an electrochemical sensor.
So far, there are few reviews on the application of MXene in the field of sensors. Zhu et al mainly introduced the application of MXene in catalysis, sensors and adsorption, but there is little introduction on the field of sensors[21]. Lorencova et al. Introduced the application of MXene in the field of electrochemical biosensors, but focused on the methods of modifying MXene used to construct robust and high-performance MXene electrochemical biosensors[32]. In this paper, the applications of MXene based electrochemical platforms in the detection of biomarkers and environmental pollutants are reviewed according to the types of analytes, and the challenges in the future research and application of MXene materials in the field of electrochemical (biological) sensors are discussed.

2 MXene Electrochemical Sensor for Biomarker Detection

Biomarkers are a class of markers related to cell growth and proliferation, which can not only explore the pathogenesis at the molecular level, but also accurately and sensitively assess early and low-level damage through quantitative detection of biomarkers, which is an important method for risk assessment and early diagnosis in the clinical field. This section focuses on the application of the electrochemical sensing platform constructed with MXene and its composites for biomarker detection.

2.1 Glucose sensor

As one of the most serious health challenges facing the world, diabetes is considered to be one of the most important causes of human death and disability worldwide[33]. Although there is no cure for diabetes, a series of serious complications can be avoided by testing glucose as a biomarker[34]. Therefore, the development of accurate and sensitive glucose detection devices has become an inevitable need. Because the electrochemical sensor has the characteristics of high sensitivity, fast response, simple operation, low cost and easy maintenance, the use of electrochemical methods to detect glucose is a very effective solution. Glucose electrochemical sensors can be divided into two types: enzymatic and non-enzymatic.

2.1.1 Nzymatic glucose sensor

The working principle of the enzymatic glucose sensor is shown in Figure 1. The key to the construction of the enzymatic electrochemical biosensor is to realize the direct electron transfer (DET) between the enzyme and the electrode[35][36]. However, the electroactive sites are usually deeply embedded in the protein core of the enzyme, which makes it very difficult for the protein to complete the DET process on the bare electrode. MXene can effectively promote the DET of glucose electrochemical biosensor due to its large specific surface area, high conductivity and good biocompatibility.
Chia et al. prepared a high-quality Ti3C2MXene by etching the Ti3AlC2MAX with HF and using tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (TBAOH) as an intercalation agent, and used it as a carrier for immobilizing glucose oxidase (GOx). Finally, glutaraldehyde (GTA) solution was dropped onto the surface of the electrode to cross-link the GOx enzyme to obtain a Ti3C2-HF/TBA/GOx/GTA/GC electrode for detecting glucose. The process is shown in Figure 2[35]. Ti3C2-HF/TBA plays a key role in improving the sensitivity and enhancing the signal of glucose sensing platform. Using TBAOH as an intercalation agent, the Ti3C2-HF is layered, so that a Ti3C2-HF/TBA with single layer and few layers is formed, the distance between the enzyme and the electrode is reduced, and the effective electron transfer between the electrode and the enzyme is realized.Meanwhile, the delamination process led to the removal of the surface termination groups on MXene, which further enhanced the conductivity of MXene materials, thus better facilitating the electron transfer process between the electrode and the enzyme. In addition, the large specific surface area of MXene provides more active surface area, which can be used to bind proteins and entrap substrates, thus allowing more enzymes to be immobilized on nanosheets. The performance of the prepared biosensor was tested by chronoamperometry, and the results showed that the linear range was wide, spanning from 50 to 27 750 μM, and the detection limit was as low as 23. 0 μM. The biosensor also showed good selectivity for glucose in the presence of ascorbic acid, dopamine hydrochloride and uric acid.
Gu et al. prepared a Ti3C2TXMXene- graphene (MG) composite membrane with a three-dimensional porous structure through a simple mixing-drying process, and used it to develop a glucose biosensor. The preparation process is shown in Figure 3[37]. By introducing Ti3C2TXMXene nanosheets to assist graphene to construct three-dimensional porous foam, it is helpful to form a more stable three-dimensional porous structure (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5), and the hydrophilic groups on it make the MG composite membrane have good hydrophilicity, which can better immobilize enzymes. In addition, the self-stacking of the Ti3C2TXMXene and the graphene sheet is suppressed, the electron transport rate is greatly improved, and more sufficient contact between the composite membrane and the electrolyte can be achieved. GC/MG/GOx was used for glucose detection with a linear range from 0.2 to 5.5 mM, and the sensitivity of the sensor was 12.10μA·mM-1 with a detection limit of 0.10 mM in air-saturated PBS buffer and 20.16μA·mM-1 with a detection limit of 0.13 mM in O2 saturated PBS buffer. After the biosensor was stored at 4 ℃ for 45 days, its sensitivity only decreased by 6. 8%, which proved that the biosensor had excellent stability.
Rakhi et al. Used the composite of Au nanoparticles and MXene to immobilize GOx and prepared an amperometric glucose sensor[38]. Due to the excellent in-plane conductivity of MXene, and the dispersion of Au nanoparticles on the surface of MXene can further improve its conductivity, the obtained GOx/Au/MXene/Nafion/GCE has excellent sensing performance with a linear range of 0.1 mM to 18 mM, a sensitivity of 4.2μA·mM-1·cm-2, and a detection limit of 5.9 μM. Wu et al. developed a high-performance glucose detection device by modifying GOx onto polylysine (PLL) modified MXene(Ti3C2)[39]. The modification of PLL not only enhanced the ability of Ti3C2 to load GOx, but also inhibited the loss of enzyme activity in the process of recycling. The test results showed that the Ti3C2-PLL-GOx/GCE showed two linear ranges of 4.0 ~ 20 μM and 0.02 ~ 1.1 mM for glucose detection, corresponding to a sensitivity of 71.42 and 38.18μA·mM-1·cm-2, with a detection limit of 2.6 μM. Lei et al. Used MXene/Prussian blue (PB) composite to modify Nitrogen doped laser-scribed graphene (N-LSG) and used it to detect glucose in sweat. The preparation process is shown in Figure 6[40]. Compared with graphene/PB and carbon nanotube/PB composites, MXene/PB composites have better detection ability due to its unique morphology and high conductivity, and a glucose sensor with excellent performance can be obtained by immobilizing GOx on a Ti3C2TX/PB/N-LSG electrode. It was used to detect glucose in artificial sweat, with a linear range of 10 μM to 5.3 mM, a detection limit of 0.3 μM, and a sensitivity of 49.2μA·mM-1·cm-2.

2.1.2 Non-enzymatic glucose sensor

Glucose detection using enzyme-based biosensors ensures a high electrochemical response, especially good selectivity in complex matrices. However, the activity of the enzyme is very vulnerable to the external environment (such as pH, temperature, etc.), and the use of the enzyme for detection has a high analytical cost. Non-enzymatic glucose sensor can overcome these shortcomings, and has the advantages of fast response, high accuracy and low cost. Li et al. developed a non-enzymatic glucose sensor with high sensitivity and selectivity by in-situ growing nickel-cobalt layered double hydroxide (NiCo-LDH) nanosheets on MXene(Ti3C2) through a simple hydrothermal method[41]. The deposition of NiCo-LDH onto the MXene substrate with good conductivity and hydrophilicity not only accelerates the electron transfer rate and significantly improves the conductivity of the composite, but also allows the composite to fully contact with the electrolyte for adequate redox reaction. The CV results showed that the current response of MXene/NiCo-LDH/GCE was significantly stronger than that of NiCo-LDH/GCE after the addition of glucose, indicating that MXene/NiCo-LDH had better catalytic performance than NiCo-LDH. Glucose was detected by chronoamperometry, and the current response of MXene/NiCo-LDH/GCE was found to be linear with glucose concentration between 0.002 and 4.096 mM, with a sensitivity of 64.75μA·mM-1·cm-2 and a detection limit of 0.53 μM.

2.2 Hydrogen peroxide sensor

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a common reactive oxygen species (ROS) in living cells, which plays a key role in life activities[42]. Almost all the enzymatic reactions of oxidase in human body can produce H2O2. Keeping the content of H2O2 at a normal level is beneficial to the signal transduction in cells and the normal physiological activities of cells. However, excessive H2O2 will cause biological damage, lead to aging and even cancer[43,44]. Therefore, the quantitative detection of H2O2 is very necessary. MXene has been used to develop H2O2 sensors. Lorencova et al. Reported a method for direct electrochemical detection of H2O2 using MXene(Ti3C2TX). A H2O2 sensor with excellent performance can be obtained by modifying MXene onto GCE with a simple drop-casting method[45]. The detection limit of Ti3C2TX/GCE can be as low as nM, and the response time is only 10 s. The H2O2 was detected by chronoamperometry at a rotating disk electrode at 300 rpm with a detection limit as low as 0.7 nM and a high sensitivity of 596 mA·cm-2·mM-1, which is much more sensitive than previously reported H2O2 sensors. Although MXene has a very good performance in the sensing field due to its excellent performance, it has poor stability at the anode potential and will be irreversibly oxidized, resulting in a significant decline in its electrochemical performance. Therefore, MXene is only suitable for redox reactions occurring in the cathode potential window, which greatly limits the application range of MXene. At present, using metal nanoparticles to modify MXene can solve this problem well. Lorencova et al. Greatly enhanced the electrochemical stability of MXene in the anodic potential window by modifying MXene with Pt NPs[46]. The CV results showed that the Ti3C2TX/Pt NP modified by Pt NPs exhibited better electrochemical stability than the original Ti3C2TX. The detection performance of the sensor for H2O2 was studied by chronoamperometry in the concentration range of 490 μM ~ 53.6 mM. The results showed that the GCE modified with Ti3C2TX/Pt NP composite could detect H2O2 more effectively than the GCE modified with Ti3C2TX at a higher positive potential, with an optimal detection limit of 448 nM and a potential of 0 V, which was nearly 2000 times lower than the detection limit (883 μM) of the GCEmodified with Ti3C2TX at the same potential.
Similarly, Neampet et al. modified a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) with a nanocomposite Pt/PANI/MXene composed of platinum nanoparticles, polyaniline, and Ti3C2MXene to obtain sensors for H2O2 and lactic acid[47]. By using Pt to modify MXene, not only the stability of the material in the anodic potential window can be improved, but also the specific surface area of the electrode and the mass transfer characteristics of H2O2 can be increased in a wider concentration range, and the conductivity of the composite can be further improved by selecting PANI with good biocompatibility for modification. When Pt/PANI/MXene modified SPCE was used to detect different concentrations of H2O2, the sensor had a wide linear range from 1.0 μM to 7.0 mM with a detection limit as low as 1.0 μM. In addition, lactate oxidase (LOx) was immobilized on Pt/PANI/MXene modified SPCE, and lactate could be detected by detecting the H2O2 generated by the enzymatic reaction between LOx and lactate. When the modified LOx on the biosensor was used to detect lactic acid, the linear range was 5. 0 μM ~ 5.0 mM, the detection limit was 5. 0 μM, and the sensitivity could reach the 0.62μA·mM-1. Therefore, the biosensor can be used for sensitively detecting H2O2, and can be further used for detecting lactic acid by modifying lactate oxidase.
Wang et al. modified Ti3C2MXene with TiO2 nanoparticles to obtain an organ-like nanocomposite (TiO2-Ti3C2), which was used to immobilize hemoglobin (Hb) to detect H2O2[48]. The organ-like structure of the TiO2-Ti3C2 nanocomposite with one open end and the other closed end is not only very conducive to the immobilization of the enzyme and provides a good microenvironment for retaining its activity and stability, but also can easily capture the matrix and increase the chance of effective collision between the substrate and the enzyme, thus improving the performance of the sensor. The test results showed that the prepared biosensor (Nafion/Hb/TiO2-Ti3C2/GCE) exhibited good performance for the detection of H2O2, with a wide linear range of 0.1 ~ 380 μM, a high sensitivity of 447.3μA·mM-1·cm-2 and a detection limit as low as 14 nM. After 60 days of storage, the biosensor still retained 94.6% of the initial response, which was superior to the linear range, detection limit, sensitivity and stability of their previously reported Nafion/Hb/Ti3C2/GCE sensor[49].
Zheng et al. developed an electrochemical biosensor for the detection of H2O2 based on Ti3C2/ graphene oxide (Ti3C2-GO) nanocomposites using inkjet printing technology[50]. Modifying MXene with GO can not only improve the electrochemical performance of the material, increase the specific surface area of the material, but also improve its stability and printability, so as to achieve better micromachining. The Hb/Ti3C2-GO/ gold foil sensor for detecting the H2O2 can be obtained by printing the Ti3C2-GO nanocomposite material on the gold foil and then modifying the electrode with Hb and Nafion solution respectively. The sensor has a linear range of 2 μM ~ 1 mM and a detection limit of 1. 95 μM, and can be used to detect H2O2 in human serum.

2.3 Neurotransmitter sensor

Dopamine (DA) is the most abundant catecholamine neurotransmitter in the brain, which plays an irreplaceable role in human kidney, metabolism, cardiovascular and central nervous system[51,52]. The abnormal concentration of dopamine in human body may cause a variety of serious neurological diseases, such as schizophrenia, Tourette's syndrome, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and pituitary tumors. Zheng et al. Prepared a novel MXene/DNA/Pd/Pt nanocomposite and used it to develop a sensitive DA sensor[53]. In this study, DNA was adsorbed onto MXene nanosheets through the π-π interaction between aromatic nucleic acid base and MXene graphite structure, and then PdCl2 was mixed with MXene/DNA composite and NaBH4 was added as a reducing agent, resulting in the formation of a large number of well-distributed Pd NPs on the surface of the material. To further enhance the catalytic activity of the nanocomposites, H2PtCl6 was added to further grow Pt NPs on the surface of MXene/DNA/Pd nanocomposites. By modifying the Ti3C2/DNA/Pd/Pt nanocomposite on the glassy carbon electrode (GCE), a sensor for the detection of DA can be obtained. The current response of Ti3C2/DNA/Pd/Pt@GCE to DA is much larger than that of Ti3C2/DNA/Pd@GCE, Ti3C2/DNA/Pt@GCE, and Ti3C2/Pd/Pt@GCE electrodes. The sensor showed a linear response to DA in the range of 0.2 to 1000 μM with a sensitivity of up to 1.05 mA·mM-1·cm-2, while the limit of detection was as low as 30 nM. When the interfering substances such as ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and glucose (Glu) were added, the sensor showed only a fast current response to DA, but no other obvious amperometric signals, which proved that the developed DA sensor had good selectivity. However, due to the use of biomolecular DNA and precious metals Pt and Pd, the analysis cost is high and the modification process is cumbersome. Therefore, there is a need for simpler and more economical methods to detect DA.
Shahzad et al. developed an efficient and economical DA sensor based on Ti3C2TXMXene[54]. The preparation method of the sensor is simple, and an efficient and sensitive detection platform can be obtained only by dripping a Ti3C2TX solution onto the GCE and then coating a Nafion solution. The use of Nafion solution helps to immobilize the Ti3C2TX onto the GCE to form a stable membrane. In addition, Nafion also plays an important role in improving the selectivity and sensitivity of electrochemical sensors. It has been previously reported that Nafion deprotonates at physiological pH, AA and UA are prevented from reaching the electrode surface due to electrostatic repulsion, and DA is more likely to diffuse to the electrode surface due to electrostatic interactions, which results in a reduced interference signal and an increased analyte signal[55]. The Nafion-stabilized Ti3C2TX/GCE sensor showed a linear amperometric response to DA in the range of 0.015 to 10 μM, with a detection limit as low as 3 nM and a relative standard deviation (RSD) of only 1.7% for four measurements, and showed good selectivity for DA in the presence of high concentrations (20-fold) of interfering substances (UA and AA). Therefore, this simple and economical method can be used as a sensitive and effective means of DA analysis in biomedical applications. In another study, Rasheed et al. Found that Nb4C3TXMXene can also detect DA very simply and sensitively[56]. Compared with other MXene, Nb4C3TX has a larger interlayer spacing, resulting in enhanced ion diffusion and charge transport of the electrolyte, and thus better electrochemical activity. The Nb4C3TX was loaded on a glassy carbon electrode, and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) was used for the quantitative determination of dopamine. Two linear calibration curves were obtained in the ranges of 50 nM ~ 1 μM and 1 ~ 10 μM, respectively, with a detection limit of 23 nM and good selectivity under the interference of AA and UA.
Adrenaline (AD) is a hormone and neurotransmitter substance released by the adrenal glands and found in most mammalian species. It regulates blood pressure, constricts blood vessels, increases heart rate, and dilates the Bronchi, and is often used to rescue dying people or animals. Therefore, the quantitative detection of epinephrine in biological samples and drugs is very necessary. Shankar et al. prepared MXene/graphite paste composite electrode (GCPE) by annealing Ti2CTXMXene in N2 and then compounding with graphite powder, and used it to detect epinephrine. The process is shown in Figure 7[57]. The microstructures of graphite powder, MXene, and MXene graphite paste composites are shown in Figure 8. After modification of MXene, MXene/GCPE showed higher catalytic activity than bare GCPE, and the electron transfer rate was also improved. The sensor showed a linear relationship in the range of 0. 02-10 mM and 10-100 mM with a detection limit of 9. 5 nM.

2.4 Cancer marker sensor

miRNAs are a class of cancer-related biomarkers, which are important for early diagnosis and prevention of cancer. Liu et al. achieved ultrasensitive detection of miRNA-182 based on MoS2/Ti3C2 nanocomposites[58]. MoS2 has a large number of active sites, while MXene has a large specific surface area and good conductivity. Therefore, the MoS2/Ti3C2 nanocomposites show good conductivity, high specific surface area, many active sites, and outstanding electrochemical performance, which greatly improve the electrochemical signal. The electrochemical biosensing platform (BSA/ssRNA/Au NPs/MoS2/Ti3C2/GCE) for detecting miRNA-182 can be obtained by modifying MoS2/Ti3C2 on the surface of GCE, dropping Au NPs solution and probe RNA solution on the modified electrode in sequence to obtain a ssRNA/Au NPs/MoS2/Ti3C2/GCE electrode, and finally dropping BSA (bovine serum albumin) solution on the ssRNA/Au NPs/MoS2/Ti3C2/GCE electrode to seal the surface of unbound gold nanoparticles to avoid nonspecific adsorption. The performance of the biosensor was evaluated by DPV test, and the response current of the biosensor was linear in the concentration range of 1 fM ~ 0.1 nM, with a detection limit of 0. 43 fM. The biosensor exhibited good selectivity and repeatability. Duan et al. developed an impedance-based aptamer for the detection of miRNA-155 by immobilizing DNA (cDNA) complementary to miRNA-155 onto Ti3C2TXMXene(FePcQDs@Ti3C2TX) modified with iron phthalocyanine quantum dots (FePcQDs)[59]. The composite of FePcQDs and Ti3C2TX not only improves the adsorption capacity and biocompatibility of the material, but also enhances the electrochemical activity.As a result, the performance of the sensor has been comprehensively improved, with a linear range of 0. 01 fM ~ 10 pM and a detection limit of 4. 3 aM.
Recently, Mohammadniaei et al. Proposed a synergistic amplification strategy to detect multiple miRNAs in plasma based on MXene's electrochemical signal amplification and double-stranded specific nuclease (DSN) amplification system[60]. They first modified the Ti3C2TX-MXene with gold nanoparticles and cast them on a screen-printed gold electrode (SPGE), and then immobilized a large number of DNA probes on the electrode to obtain a detection platform for miRNA. The biosensor showed a linear response to miRNA-21 and miRNA-141 in the concentration range of 500 aM ~ 50 nM, with detection limits of 204 and 138 aM, respectively. The device was used to detect micRNA-21 and miRNA-141 in serum, and the recovery rate was 96. 9% ~ 104.3%, which proved the practicability of the sensor.
Superoxide anion (O2·-) is a kind of reactive oxygen species that widely exists in biological systems, which is involved in the pathogenesis of diseases such as cancer, arteriosclerosis and neuropathy, and is considered to be an important biomarker for the diagnosis of these diseases[61⇓~63]. Zheng et al. Synthesized a biomimetic enzyme based on MXene composite by using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to induce Mn3(PO4)2 to deposit on Ti3C2MXene, and used it to detect O2·-[64]. Due to the excellent conductivity, MXene greatly improves the electron transfer between the active redox center of the enzyme and the electrode, and the addition of ATP promotes the assembly of Mn3(PO4)2 on the surface of MXene, thus forming a porous and ordered structure. Therefore, the sensor has excellent sensing performance, and its current response is linear in the range of 2.5 nM to 14.0 μM, with a sensitivity of up to 7.86 mA·mM-1·cm-2 and a detection limit as low as 0.5 nM. The biosensor was applied to the analysis of real samples, and it was found that the biosensor could sensitively detect the O2·- released from human liver cancer cells (HepG2), which proved that the biosensor could be used for the detection of O2·- in biological systems and had great application value in biomedicine. In another study, Zhao et al. Assembled Mn3(PO4)2 with Ti3C2TX-MXene to develop a flexible O2·- electrochemical biosensor[65]. The assembly of Mn3(PO4)2 with MXene results in a strong interfacial interaction, which not only promotes the charge transfer and enhances the catalytic activity for O2·-, but also endows the composite with good flexibility. When the device was bent 180 °, almost 100% of the current response was retained, and even after 100 consecutive bending/relaxation processes, 96% of the current response was retained, and the sensor also had a high sensitivity of 64.93μA·μM-1·cm-2, with a detection limit as low as 1.63 nM.
Kumar et al. functionalized MXene with aminosilane (APTES) to achieve covalent immobilization of biological receptor (anti-CEA) for the purpose of detecting carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)[66]. The obtained biosensor has a 0.0001~2000 ng·mL-1 linear range, a high sensitivity of 37.9μA·ng-1·mL·cm-2, and a low detection limit of 0.000018 ng·mL-1.
Osteopontin (OPN) is a phosphoprotein that regulates tumor metastasis and can be regarded as a serum marker of malignant tumor growth. Zhou et al. embedded the nanocomposite of Ti3C2TX-MXene and phosphomolybdic acid (PMo12) into polypyrrole (PPy), and used it to immobilize OPN RNA aptamer (Apt), thus preparing an impedance aptamer biosensor for detecting OPN[67]. A bare gold electrode (AE) modified with Apt/PPy@Ti3C2TX/PMo12 was used to detect OPN with a linear range of 0.05~10 000 pg·mL-1 and a detection limit as low as 0.98 fg·mL-1, which is better than other reported OPN aptasensors.
Using complementary DNA-ferrocene (cDNA-Fc)/MXene as a probe, Wang et al. developed a competitive electrochemical aptamer for the detection of breast cancer marker Mucin1 (MUC1)[68]. The cDNA-Fc loaded on MXene will be partially complementary to the aptamer on Apt/Au/GCE, thus forming an aptamer sensor. When the sensor was used to detect MUC1, the cDNA-Fc/MXene probe would compete with MUC1 to bind to the modified aptamer on the electrode, and the binding of MUC1 to the aptamer would lead to the change of DNA conformation, and the cDNA-Fc/MXene probe would fall off from the sensor, thus reducing the electrical signal. Therefore, the sensitive detection of MUC1 could be achieved by detecting the change of current signal generated by this competitive process. The linear range of the method is from 1. 0 pM to 10 μM, and the detection limit is as low as 0. 33 pM.

3 Application of MXene electrochemical sensor in environmental pollutant detection

3.1 Pesticide sensor

3.1.1 Organophosphorus pesticide sensor

In order to protect crops from pests and diseases, pesticides are widely used worldwide. Although some highly toxic pesticides have been banned or replaced by low-toxicity pesticides, the harm caused by their residues in agricultural products and the environment can not be underestimated. Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are widely used as insecticides because of their low toxicity. However, when used in large quantities, OPs can cause serious health problems, because OPs can inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and damage the human nervous system[69⇓~71]. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the OPs residues in the environment and agricultural products. Recently, MXene, as a good enzyme immobilization platform, has been used to develop AChE biosensors for detecting OPs. Zhou et al. Developed a novel AChE biosensor based on MXene and chitosan (CS), and successfully used it to detect malathion[72]. Due to the excellent conductivity and large specific surface area of Ti3C2TX nanosheets, CS has good adhesion, biocompatibility and excellent film-forming ability.Therefore, CS-Ti3C2TX nanocomposites can provide a good biocompatible microenvironment for AChE, and their excellent electronic conductivity and large effective surface area greatly improve the response speed and sensitivity of the sensor. The AChE biosensor based on the CS-Ti3C2TX nanocomposite showed good performance with a linear range of 1×10-14~1×10-8M and a detection limit of 0.3×10-14M. When the sensor is used to detect malathion in tap water, the recovery rate can reach 94% ~ 105%.
Jiang et al. Used MXene as a reducing agent and carrier to synthesize Ag@Ti3C2TX nanocomposites by reduction process, and used them to immobilize AChE, thus preparing an AChE biosensor for detecting OPs[73]. The prepared biosensor combines the synergetic effect between the Ti3C2TX and the Ag nanoparticles, promotes the electron transfer, and enlarges the effective surface area for detecting OPs, thus showing excellent sensing performance. Malathion was selected as a model pesticide, and its sensing performance was measured by DPV. The AChE/Ag@Ti3C2TX/GCE biosensor not only showed a wide linear range of 1.0×10-14~1.0×10-8M down to a detection limit of 3.27×10-15M, but also fast electrochemical response, acceptable stability, and good reproducibility. The practicability of the sensor was confirmed by detecting different amounts of malathion (10-14M and 10-11M) in tap water samples, and the recoveries were 87. 1% and 112%, respectively. Similarly, He et al. prepared a PB@Ti3C2TX composite by autoreduction (the preparation process and microstructure are shown in Fig. 9) and used it to detect malathion[74]. The linear range of the sensor is 1.0×10-15~1.0×10-9M, and the detection limit is 1.3×10-16M.
Zhao et al. used MXene as a natural reducing agent and carrier to prepare shape-controllable Au-Pd bimetallic nanoparticles by self-reduction at room temperature, and obtained MXene/Au-Pd nanocomposites, which were used to develop AChE biosensors for detecting OPs[75]. Compared with monometallic nanoparticles, bimetallic nanoparticles have better catalytic ability due to their synergistic effect, which can catalyze the hydrolysis of ATCh (acetylthiocholine) in cooperation with AChE. Using paraoxon as a model pesticide, the performance of the biosensor was evaluated by amperometry. The linear range of the SPE/MXene/Au-Pd/GA/AChE biosensor was 0.36 ~ 3 634 nM with a detection limit of 6.36 pM. The sensor was applied to the determination of paraoxon in pear and cucumber samples, and the recoveries ranged from 87. 93% to 111. 02% with the relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 1. 08% -6. 37%, which proved that the prepared sensor had acceptable accuracy and strong practicability.
Song et al. modified GCE with two nanocomposites, MnO2/Mn3O4 and Ti3C2MXene/Au NPs, to construct an AChE biosensor for sensitive detection of OPs[76]. When the sensor was used to detect methamidophos, the linear range was 10-12~10-6M and the detection limit was 1.34×10-13M, which was far beyond the maximum residue limit (MRLs) of 0.01 mg/kg allowed by the European Union.

3.1.2 Benzimidazole fungicide sensor

Carbendazim (CBZ), a benzimidazole fungicide, has been widely used to control a variety of crop diseases caused by fungi, but its residues also pose a great threat to human health[77,78]. Wu et al. Found that Ti3C2TXMXene had electrocatalytic effect on CBZ, and fluorine-terminated Ti3C2TX had better electrocatalytic effect on CBZ than oxygen-terminated Ti3C2TX[79]. The fluorine-functionalized Ti3C2TX was modified onto GCE for the detection of CBZ, with a linear range of 50 nM to 100 μM and a detection limit of 10.3 nM. In order to obtain a CBZ electrochemical sensor with better performance, Tu et al. Modified MXene with carbon nanohorns (CNHs) to improve the electrocatalytic activity and conductivity of MXene, and further compounded MXene/CNHs with β-cyclodextrin-metal organic frameworks (β-CD-MOFs) to increase the recognition and enrichment ability of CBZ, and finally obtained a CBZ electrochemical sensor with excellent performance[80]. The linear range of the sensor is from 3.0 nM to 10.0 μM, and the detection limit can be as low as 1.0 nM. Similarly, Zhu et al. modified MXene with Au-Ag nanoshuttles (NSs) to improve the conductivity, electrocatalytic activity and stability of the material, and developed a novel smart nanosensing platform based on the relevance vector machine (RMV) model[81]. The electrochemical detection range of the sensor for CBZ was 6 nM ~ 9.8 μM with a detection limit of 2 nM.

3.2 Detection of other environmental pollutants

3.2.1 Phenol sensor

Phenolic compounds are byproducts of many chemical plants, which are harmful to the ecological environment and animals and plants, which makes phenolic wastewater become one of the most harmful and polluting industrial wastewater in the world[82,83]. Wu et al. developed a biosensor for the detection of phenol using MXene as a substrate for the immobilization of tyrosinase (Tyr)[84]. MXene is usually prepared in an aqueous environment rich in — OH, so part of the surface of MXene will be blocked by — OH, which not only makes MXene have better hydrophilicity, but also provides a water-like biological microenvironment for the immobilized enzyme molecules, so that the enzyme can retain biological activity and stability. The preparation process of the sensor is simple, and a Tyr-MXene-Chi/GC electrochemical biosensor for detecting phenol can be obtained by dropcasting MXene suspension, tyrosinase solution and chitosan (Chi) on a GC electrode. Chronoamperometry tests showed that the sensor had a linear range of 0.05~15.5μmol·L-1 with a sensitivity of 414.4 mA·M-1 and a detection limit down to 12 nmol·L-1, which was more sensitive than the previously reported graphene/Au/Chi/Tyr modified screen-printed electrode (16 nM) and ordered graphitic mesoporous carbon (GMC) tyrosinase biosensor (20 nM)[85][86]. In another study, Huang et al. Treated Ti3C2(alk-Ti3C2) with alkalization to make its surface carry more -OH, so as to better detect hydroquinone (HQ) and catechol (CT)[87]. In order to prevent the self-stacking of MXene, nitrogen-doped porous carbon (N-PC) derived from MOF-5-NH2 was also self-assembled with alk-Ti3C2, and the resulting alk-Ti3C2/N-PC composite showed excellent performance for detecting HQ and CT. The linear range of the sensor was 0.5 ~ 150 μM, and the detection limits were 4.8 nM and 3.1 nM, respectively.

3.2.2 Nitrite sensor

Nitrite is widely used in industry and construction, and is also used in meat products as a limited amount of chromogenic agent, which can cause food poisoning if people accidentally ingest a small amount, and nitrite is also a class 2A carcinogen[88,89]. Liu et al. Developed a mediator-free enzyme biosensor (Nafion/Hb/MXene-Ti3C2/GCE) based on MXene-Ti3C2 and used it to detect nitrite[90]. In this work, MXene-Ti3C2 was used to immobilize Hb due to its large surface area, high electrical conductivity, and good biocompatibility. This not only allows more Hb to be immobilized on the GCE electrode and retain its activity and stability on its surface, but also promotes the direct electron transfer between Hb and the electrode. The biosensor has a wide linear range of 0. 5-11 800 μM and a low detection limit of 0. 12 μM. Wang et al. designed a high-performance electrochemical detection device for nitrite by modifying MXene with poly (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) to neutralize the negative charge on the surface of MXene, so as to better enrich the NO 2 -, and then depositing Au NPs on the surface of the material to enhance the electrocatalytic activity for NO 2 -[91]. Due to the good synergistic catalysis between materials, the device shows a linear relationship in the nitrite concentration range of 0.1 μM ~ 2.49 mM and 2.49 ~ 13.49 mM, the sensitivity can reach 250μA·mM-1·cm-2, and the detection limit can be as low as 59 nM. Similarly, Wang et al. modified MXene with TiO2 to improve its electrochemical performance and electrocatalytic activity, and also used cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) to enhance the adsorption of NO 2 - on the material. They also developed an excellent nitrite sensor with a linear range of 3 μM ~ 0.25 mM and 0.25 mM ~ 1.25 mM, and a detection limit of 0.85 μM[92].

3.2.3 Heavy metal ion sensor

With the rapid development of modern industry, more and more heavy metal ions are released into the environment, which poses a great threat to the ecological environment and human health. The common heavy metal ions are Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, Cr2+ and so on[93,94]. Cheng et al. Used PANI to modify the Ti3C2-MXene, and then modified it on the glassy carbon electrode to achieve the purpose of electrochemical detection of Hg2+[95]. The obtained electrochemical detection device has a 0.1~20μg·L-1 linear range and a 17 ng·L-1 detection limit, and has a good recovery rate in the Hg2+ detection of tap water and lake water. Rasheed et al. modified Nb4C3TX onto GCE and quantitatively detected Pb2+ by anodic square wave stripping voltammetry (SWASV), as shown in fig. 10[96]. The linear range of the assay was 0. 025-0. 5 μM, and the detection limit was 12 nM. Lv et al. prepared a high-performance electrochemical sensor for Pb2+ and Cd2+ by compounding Ti3C2TX with protonated carbon nitride (H-C3N4)[97]. The sensor showed a linear response range of 0.01 – 1.50 μM for Pb2+ and 0.01 – 3.20 μM for Cd2+, with a detection limit of 7 nM and 8 nM, respectively.

4 Conclusion and prospect

As a two-dimensional graphene-like material, MXene has attracted wide attention in many research fields. Because of its excellent physical, chemical and structural properties, MXene is considered to be the most potential alternative to graphene. In this review, we briefly introduce the methods of constructing high-performance electrochemical (bio-) sensors using MXene and its nanocomposites, and their applications in the detection of biomarkers and environmental pollutants, and discuss the sensor performance from the aspects of linear range, detection limit, sensitivity, etc. Obviously, MXene is a very potential sensing material. Its unique accordion-like structure and abundant functional groups on the surface make it hydrophilic and easy to be functionalized.It can easily combine with other materials (such as enzymes, DNA and other biomolecules), and provide a biocompatible microenvironment for these biomolecules, thus maintaining their activity and stability. Moreover, MXene can be easily compounded with metal nanoparticles and other carbon-based materials (graphene, carbon nanotubes, etc.), thus showing better physical and chemical properties. The MXene-based sensor exhibits a wide linear range, high sensitivity, and a low detection limit, which is better than or comparable to many published sensors based on graphene and other two-dimensional nanomaterials.
Nevertheless, the research on MXene for the construction of electrochemical (bio-) sensors is still shallow, and there are still many shortcomings to be overcome, such as:
(1) At present, there are only three kinds of MXene materials reported to construct electrochemical (biological) sensors, namely Ti3C2-MXene, Ti2C-MXene and Nb4C3-MXene, among which Ti3C2-MXene accounts for the vast majority. But actually MXene is a very large family, and there are many other MXenes worth exploring and developing. A large number of MXene phases have been theoretically predicted, some of which have excellent properties, but have not yet been experimentally synthesized, such as titanium nitride. Titanium nitride is predicted to have a higher conductivity than the corresponding titanium carbide, which will be a very potential sensor material. However, it is difficult to etch titanium nitride from its parent phase MAX by the current synthesis method. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new synthetic methods to synthesize MXene, especially those with excellent properties.
(2) The surface groups of MXene are uncontrollable. The MXene prepared by the current MXene synthesis method has uncontrollable surface end groups, and the surface end groups affect the performance of the MXene to a certain extent, for example, the fluorine-terminated MXene is not suitable for constructing a biosensor in some cases, and the electrochemical performance of the MXene is deteriorated due to high fluorine content[27,98]. Therefore, it is necessary to invest a lot of effort in this area to find ways to control the termination of MXene surfaces. The bottom-up method seems to be a feasible way to synthesize MXene with controllable morphology, structure and surface end groups, but it is still impossible to obtain monolayer MXene by bottom-up method, so further development and research are needed.
(3) The oxidation stability of MXene in aerated water is poor. The oxidation of titanium carbide MXene results in the formation of TiO2, which greatly degrades its electrochemical performance. Although MXene can be stored in appropriate organic solvents or in solid form, most MXene-based sensors work in aqueous environment. Using other materials to modify MXene to form nanocomposites can also enhance its oxidative stability, but more and better methods need to be developed to solve this problem.
In a word, MXene has a very broad application prospect in the field of electrochemical (biological) sensing. Although there are still many difficulties to be overcome, MXene's excellent performance is enough to replace graphene in the construction of electrochemical sensors. Therefore, it is necessary to invest more efforts to design and develop new MXene electrochemical sensors with better performance.

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within
[1]

Naguib M, Kurtoglu M, Presser V, Lu J, Niu J J, Heon M, Hultman L, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum M W. Adv. Mater., 2011, 23(37): 4248.
[2]

Naguib M, Mashtalir O, Carle J, Presser V, Lu J, Hultman L, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum M W. ACS Nano, 2012, 6(2): 1322.
[3]

Naguib M, Mochalin V N, Barsoum M W, Gogotsi Y. Adv. Mater., 2014, 26(7): 992.
[4]

Ghidiu M, Lukatskaya M R, Zhao M Q, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum M W. Nature, 2014, 516(7529): 78.
[5]

Eklund P, Rosen J, Persson P O Å. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 2017, 50(11): 113001.
[6]

Yao S S, Li N, Ye H Q, Han K. Prog. Chem., 2018, 30(7): 932.
[7]

( 姚送送, 李诺, 叶红齐, 韩凯. 化学进展, 2018, 30(7): 932.)
[8]

Naguib M, Gogotsi Y. Acc. Chem. Res., 2015, 48(1): 128.
[9]

Magnuson M, Mattesini M. Thin Solid Films, 2017, 621: 108.
[10]

Sun D D, Hu Q K, Li Z Y, Wang L B, Zhou A G, Wu Q H. J. Synth. Cryst., 2014, 43(11): 2950.
[11]

( 孙丹丹, 胡前库, 李正阳, 王李波, 周爱国, 吴庆华. 人工晶体学报, 2014, 43(11): 2950.)
[12]

Wang L B, Liu H, Lv X, Cui G Z, Gu G X. J. Alloys Compd., 2020, 828: 154251.
[13]

Anasori B, Lukatskaya M R, Gogotsi Y. Nat. Rev. Mater., 2017, 2(2): 1.
[14]

Li X L, Zhu J F, Wang L, Wu W L, Fang Y. Electrochimica Acta, 2017, 258: 291.
[15]

Zhao M Q, Xie X Q, Ren C G, Makaryan T, Anasori B, Wang G X, Gogotsi Y. Adv. Mater., 2017, 29(37): 1702410.
[16]

Zhang X F, Liu Y, Dong S L, Yang J Q, Liu X D. Electrochimica Acta, 2019, 294: 233.
[17]

Chen S, Xiang Y F, Xu W J, Peng C. Inorg. Chem. Front., 2019, 6(1): 199.
[18]

Zhang C, Nicolosi V. Energy Storage Mater., 2019, 16: 102.
[19]

Mariano M, Mashtalir O, Antonio F Q, Ryu W H, Deng B C, Xia F N, Gogotsi Y, Taylor A D. Nanoscale, 2016, 8(36): 16371.
[20]

Liu G Z, Shen J, Liu Q, Liu G P, Xiong J, Yang J, Jin W Q. J. Membr. Sci., 2018, 548: 548.
[21]

Ding L, Wei Y Y, Li L B, Zhang T, Wang H H, Xue J, Ding L X, Wang S Q, Caro J, Gogotsi Y. Nat. Commun., 2018, 9(1): 1.
[22]

Gao G P, O’Mullane A P, Du A J. ACS Catal., 2017, 7(1): 494.
[23]

Zhu J, Ha E, Zhao G, Zhou Y, Huang D, Yue G, Hu L, Sun N, Wang Y, Lee L Y S. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2017, 352: 306.
[24]

Shahzad F, Alhabeb M, Hatter C B, Anasori B, Man Hong S, Koo C M, Gogotsi Y. Science, 2016, 353(6304): 1137.
[25]

Cao M S, Cai Y Z, He P, Shu J C, Cao W Q, Yuan J. Chem. Eng. J., 2019, 359: 1265.
[26]

George S M, Kandasubramanian B. Ceram. Int., 2020, 46(7): 8522.
[27]

Lin H, Chen Y, Shi J L. Adv. Sci., 2018, 5(10): 1800518.
[28]

Xue Q, Zhang H J, Zhu M S, Pei Z X, Li H F, Wang Z F, Huang Y, Huang Y, Deng Q H, Zhou J, Du S Y, Huang Q, Zhi C Y. Adv. Mater., 2017, 29(15): 1604847.
[29]

Soomro R A, Jawaid S, Zhu Q Z, Abbas Z, Xu B. Chin. Chem. Lett., 2020, 31(4): 922.
[30]

Thanh T D, Balamurugan J, Lee S H, Kim N H, Lee J H. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2016, 81: 259.
[31]

Chekin F, Teodorescu F, Coffinier Y, Pan G H, Barras A, Boukherroub R, Szunerits S. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2016, 85: 807.
[32]

Ling Z, Ren C G, Zhao M Q, Yang J, Giammarco J M, Qiu J S, Barsoum M W, Gogotsi Y. PNAS, 2014, 111(47): 16676.
[33]

Mashtalir O, Naguib M, Mochalin V N, Dall’Agnese Y, Heon M, Barsoum M W, Gogotsi Y. Nat. Commun., 2013, 4(1): 1.
[34]

Lorencova L, Gajdosova V, Hroncekova S, Bertok T, Blahutova J, Vikartovska A, Parrakova L, Gemeiner P, Kasak P, Tkac J. Electroanalysis, 2019, 31(10): 201981003.
[35]

Chen L W, Gan L H, Xu Z J. Chem. Res. Chin. Univ., 2001, 22(11): 1916.
[36]

( 陈龙武, 甘礼华, 徐子颉. 高等学校化学学报, 2001, 22(11): 1916.)
[37]

Zaidi S A, Shin J H. Talanta, 2016, 149: 30.
[38]

Chia H L, Mayorga-Martinez C C, Antonatos N, Sofer Z, Gonzalez-Julian J J, Webster R D, Pumera M. Anal. Chem., 2020, 92(3): 2452.
[39]

Wang Y, Ma X L, Wen Y, Xing Y Y, Zhang Z R, Yang H F. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2010, 25(11): 2442.
[40]

Gu H, Xing Y D, Xiong P, Tang H L, Li C C, Chen S, Zeng R J, Han K, Shi G Y. ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 2019, 2(10): 6537.
[41]

Rakhi R B, Nayak P, Xia C, Alshareef H N. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6(1): 1.
[42]

Wu M Y, Zhang Q, Fang Y Y, Deng C, Zhou F Z, Zhang Y, Wang X D, Tang Y, Wang Y J. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 2021, 586: 20.
[43]

Lei Y J, Alshareef A H, Zhao W L, Inal S. ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 2020, 3(2): 1166.
[44]

Li M H, Fang L, Zhou H, Wu F, Lu Y, Luo H J, Zhang Y X, Hu B S. Appl. Surf. Sci., 2019, 495: 143554.
[45]

Sawangphruk M, Sanguansak Y, Krittayavathananon A, Luanwuthi S, Srimuk P, Nilmoung S, Maensiri S, Meevasana W, Limtrakul J. Carbon, 2014, 70: 287.
[46]

Sun X L, Guo S J, Liu Y, Sun S H. Nano Lett., 2012, 12(9): 4859.
[47]

Qin Y, Li Z H, Wang Y L, Wang D B, Jiang J K. New Chem. Mater., 2019, 47(1): 1.
[48]

( 秦瑜, 李泽晖, 王亚玲, 王东滨, 蒋靖坤. 化工新型材料, 2019, 47(1): 1.)
[49]

Lorencova L, Bertok T, Dosekova E, Holazova A, Paprckova D, Vikartovska A, Sasinkova V, Filip J, Kasak P, Jerigova M, Velic D, Mahmoud K A, Tkac J. Electrochimica Acta, 2017, 235: 471.
[50]

Lorencova L, Bertok T, Filip J, Jerigova M, Velic D, Kasak P, Mahmoud K A, Tkac J. Sens. Actuat. B: Chem., 2018, 263: 360.
[51]

Neampet S, Ruecha N, Qin J Q, Wonsawat W, Chailapakul O, Rodthongkum N. Microchimica Acta, 2019, 186(12): 1.
[52]

Wang F, Yang C, Duan M, Tang Y, Zhu J. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2015, 74: 1022.
[53]

Wang F, Yang C H, Duan C Y, Xiao D, Tang Y, Zhu J F. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 162(1): B16.
[54]

Zheng J S, Diao J L, Jin Y Z, Ding A L, Wang B, Wu L Z, Weng B, Chen J C. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165(5): B227.
[55]

Yan X Y, Gu Y, Li C, Tang L, Zheng B, Li Y R, Zhang Z Q, Yang M. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2016, 77: 1032.
[56]

Li H, Zhao Y Y, Peng H N. Progress in Chemistry, 2018, 30: 1228.
[57]

( 李红, 赵媛媛, 彭浩南. 化学进展, 2018, 30: 1228.)
[58]

Zheng J S, Wang B, Ding A L, Weng B, Chen J C. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2018, 816: 189.
[59]

Shahzad F, Iqbal A, Zaidi S A, Hwang S W, Koo C M. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 2019, 79: 338.
[60]

Zhang W X, Zheng J Z, Shi J G, Lin Z Q, Huang Q T, Zhang H Q, Wei C, Chen J H, Hu S R, Hao A Y. Anal. Chimica Acta, 2015, 853: 285.
[61]

Rasheed P A, Pandey R P, Gomez T, Jabbar K A, Prenger K, Naguib M, Aïssa B, Mahmoud K A. Electrochem. Commun., 2020, 119: 106811.
[62]

Shankar S S, Shereema R M, Rakhi R B. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2018, 10(50): 43343.
[63]

Liu L, Wei Y, Jiao S, Zhu S, Liu X. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2019, 137: 45.
[64]

Duan F H, Guo C P, Hu M Y, Song Y P, Wang M H, He L H, Zhang Z H, Pettinari R, Zhou L M. Sens. Actuat. B: Chem., 2020, 310: 127844.
[65]

Mohammadniaei M, Koyappayil A, Sun Y, Min J H, Lee M H. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2020, 159: 112208.
[66]

Klaunig J E, Kamendulis L M. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 2004, 44(1): 239.
[67]

Yamazaki T, Kawai C, Yamauchi A, Kuribayashi F. Trop.Med.Health, 2011, 39(2): 41.
[68]

Tong L Y, Chuang C C, Wu S Y, Zuo L. Cancer Lett., 2015, 367(1): 18.
[69]

Zheng J S, Wang B, Jin Y Z, Weng B, Chen J C. Microchimica Acta, 2019, 186(2): 1.
[70]

Zhao S F, Hu F X, Shi Z Z, Fu J J, Chen Y, Dai F Y, Guo C X, Li C M. Nano Res., 2021, 14(3): 879.
[71]

Kumar S, Lei Y J, Alshareef N H, Quevedo-Lopez M A, Salama K N. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2018, 121: 243.
[72]

Zhou S J, Gu C X, Li Z Z, Yang L Y, He L H, Wang M H, Huang X Y, Zhou N, Zhang Z H. Appl. Surf. Sci., 2019, 498: 143889.
[73]

Wang H Y, Sun J J, Lu L, Yang X, Xia J F, Zhang F F, Wang Z H. Anal. Chimica Acta, 2020, 1094: 18.
[74]

Mulchandani A, Chen W, Mulchandani P, Wang J, Rogers K R. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2001, 16(4/5): 225.
[75]

Bao J, Hou C J, Chen M, Li J J, Huo D Q, Yang M, Luo X G, Lei Y. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2015, 63(47): 10319.
[76]

Lu X, Li Y S, Tao L, Song D D, Wang Y Z, Li Y, Gao F M. Nanotechnology, 2019, 30(5): 055501.
[77]

Zhou L Y, Zhang X N, Ma L, Gao J, Jiang Y J. Biochem. Eng. J., 2017, 128: 243.
[78]

Jiang Y J, Zhang X N, Pei L J, Yue S, Ma L, Zhou L Y, Huang Z H, He Y, Gao J. Chem. Eng. J., 2018, 339: 547.
[79]

He Y, Zhou X T, Zhou L Y, Zhang X N, Ma L, Jiang Y J, Gao J. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2020, 59(35): 15556.
[80]

Zhao F N, Yao Y, Jiang C M, Shao Y Z, BarcelÓ D, Ying Y B, Ping J F. J. Hazard. Mater., 2020, 384: 121358.
[81]

Song D D, Jiang X Y, Li Y S, Lu X, Luan S R, Wang Y Z, Li Y, Gao F M. J. Hazard. Mater., 2019, 373: 367.
[82]

Ya Y, Jiang C W, Mo L X, Li T, Xie L P, He J, Tang L, Ning D J, Yan F Y. Food Anal. Methods, 2017, 10(5): 1479.
[83]

Yang Y, Xing X X, Zou T, Wang Z D, Zhao R J, Hong P, Peng S J, Zhang X, Wang Y D. J. Hazard. Mater., 2020, 386: 121958.
[84]

Wu D H, Wu M Y, Yang J H, Zhang H W, Xie K F, Lin C T, Yu A M, Yu J H, Fu L. Mater. Lett., 2019, 236: 412.
[85]

Tu X L, Gao F, Ma X, Zou J, Yu Y F, Li M F, Qu F L, Huang X G, Lu L M. J. Hazard. Mater., 2020, 396: 122776.
[86]

Zhu X Y, Liu P, Xue T, Ge Y, Ai S R, Sheng Y Y, Wu R M, Xu L L, Tang K J, Wen Y P. Ceram. Int., 2021, 47(1): 173.
[87]

Shen Y, Rao D J, Sheng Q L, Zheng J B. Microchimica Acta, 2017, 184(9): 3591.
[88]

Yang H, Li S X, Yu H W, Zheng F Y, Lin L X, Chen J, Li Y H, Lin Y. Nanoscale, 2019, 11(18): 8950.
[89]

Wu L X, Lu X B, Dhanjai, Wu Z S, Dong Y F, Wang X H, Zheng S H, Chen J P. Biosens. Bioelectron., 2018, 107: 69.
[90]

Fartas F, Abdullah J, Yusof N, Sulaiman Y, Saiman M. Sensors, 2017, 17(5): 1132.
[91]

Wu L D, Lu X B, Zhang H J, Chen J P. ChemSusChem, 2012, 5(10): 1918.
[92]

Huang R M, Liao D, Chen S S, Yu J G, Jiang X Y. Sens. Actuat. B: Chem., 2020, 320: 128386.
[93]

Jaiswal N, Tiwari I, Foster C W, Banks C E. Electrochimica Acta, 2017, 227: 255.
[94]

Li X J, Ping J F, Ying Y B. Trac Trends Anal. Chem., 2019, 113: 1.
[95]

Liu H, Duan C Y, Yang C H, Shen W Q, Wang F, Zhu Z F. Sens. Actuat. B: Chem., 2015, 218: 60.
[96]

Wang Y H, Zeng Z X, Qiao J Y, Dong S Q, Liang Q, Shao S J. Talanta, 2021, 221: 121605.
[97]

Wang X, Li M J, Yang S, Shan J J. Electrochimica Acta, 2020, 359: 136938.
[98]

Li H, Kong D M, Progress in Chemistry, 2013, 25: 2119.
[99]

( 李慧, 孔德明. 化学进展, 2013, 25: 2119.).
[100]

Wang X X, Gao J, Liu G M, Zhu X, Cui J Y, Sun Q Q. Chemical Reagents, 2019, 41: 113.
[101]

( 王新星, 高健, 刘广茂, 朱旭, 崔久英, 孙琪琪. 化学试剂, 2019, 41: 113.)
[102]

Cheng H L, Yang J R. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 2020, 15: 2295.
[103]

Rasheed P A, Pandey R P, Gomez T, Naguib M, Mahmoud K A. RSC Adv., 2020, 10(41): 24697.
[104]

Lv X, Pei F B, Feng S S, Wu Y, Chen S M, Hao Q L, Lei W. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167(6): 067509.
[105]

Lu M, Li H J, Han W J, Chen J N, Shi W, Wang J H, Meng X M, Qi J G, Li H B, Zhang B S, Zhang W, Zheng W T. J. Energy Chem., 2019, 31: 148.

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(51504168)

Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province(2019CFB415)

Graduate Education Innovation Foundation of WIT(CX2020141)

PDF (6774KB)

3509

Accesses

0

Citation

Detail
Sections
Recommended

/

〈 〉

Address of Editorial Office: No. 33 Beisihuan Xilu, Zhongguancun , Beijing 100190, China
Tel: +86 10 8262 7757
Fax: +86 10 8262 7757
E-mail: progchem@mail.las.ac.cn
http://www.progchem.ac.cn
    • 　
    Copyright © Editorial Office of Progress in Chemistry