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Key Environmental Behaviors of Tire Wear Particles and Their Influencing Mechanisms

Hongwei Liu , Yuxin Yuan , Tianchi Cao , Tong Zhang , Wei Chen

Progress in Chemistry ›› 2025, Vol. 37 ›› Issue (1) : 103 -111.

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Progress in Chemistry ›› 2025, Vol. 37 ›› Issue (1) : 103-111 DOI: 10.7536/PC240708
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Key Environmental Behaviors of Tire Wear Particles and Their Influencing Mechanisms
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Abstract

Due to the rapid growth in the number of vehicles and freight transport, tire wear particles (TWPs), generated from the friction between tires and road surfaces, have become the main source of microplastics in the environment. TWPs are widely detected in various environmental media, including soil, surface water, and sediments. An in-depth mechanistic understanding of the environmental interfacial processes of TWPs is of great significance for the control of microplastic pollution. In this paper, we first summarized recent progress in the interfacial chemical processes of TWPs, including the transport behavior, environmental transformation, release of toxic additives, and the adsorption of co-existing pollutants on TWPs. We then addressed some existing issues in current research and proposed future directions toward a better understanding of the environmental behavior and potential environmental risks of TWPs.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Fate and transport of TWPs in the environment

2.1 Transport via rainfall and runoff

2.2 Atmospheric transport

2.3 Aggregation and sedimentation behavior of TWPs in the aquatic environment

3 Transformations of TWPs in the environment

3.1 Physical and chemical transformations of TWPs

3.2 Microbial transformation of TWPs

4 Release of additives from TWPs

5 Accumulation of contaminants on TWPs

6 Conclusion and outlook

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Keywords

tire wear particles / environmental interfacial processes / transport / transformation / release of additives

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Hongwei Liu, Yuxin Yuan, Tianchi Cao, Tong Zhang, Wei Chen. Key Environmental Behaviors of Tire Wear Particles and Their Influencing Mechanisms. Progress in Chemistry, 2025, 37(1): 103-111 DOI:10.7536/PC240708

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1 Introduction

Microplastics, defined as plastic particles with a diameter of less than 5 mm, have been recognized as a global environmental issue. Microplastics impact aquatic and terrestrial organisms through various pathways such as the food chain, drinking water, and air, and may even pose potential risks to human health[1]. The sources of microplastics in the environment include wear from car tires, use and fragmentation of agricultural films, aging of plastic building materials and food packaging, and discharges from wastewater treatment plants[2-3]. Over the past two decades, with the continuous increase in vehicle ownership and rapid growth in road freight transport, particles generated from tire and road wear have become a major source of microplastics in the environment[4⇓-6]. For example, according to model estimates of the sources of microplastics in different countries, in Switzerland, Sweden, and China, 94%, 70%, and 54% of the microplastics in the environment, respectively, originate from wear on vehicle tires[4,7]. Compared to other types of microplastics, tire wear particles are complex in composition, containing 40% to 60% rubber, 20% to 35% carbon black and silica, and 5% to 10% additives (such as oxidants, plasticizers, and vulcanizing agents, etc.)[8-9]. Both the tire wear particles themselves and the toxic additives they release can harm ecosystems and life health[10⇓-12]. For instance, a recent study in Science pointed out that the transformation product of the tire wear particle additive 6-PPD (i.e., 6-PPD-quinone) has caused poisoning and death in salmon[13].
Tire wear particles undergo complex physical, chemical, and biological transformations during their migration in the environment, leading to changes in their physicochemical properties (such as morphology, size, and surface functional groups)[14⇓-16]. These changes in physicochemical properties not only affect the release of harmful additives they contain[17]; but also influence the mobility of tire wear particles, their interactions with environmental media and coexisting pollutants, and their bio-toxicity and ecological effects[18-19]. Therefore, studying the environmental interfacial chemistry of tire wear particles is helpful for understanding their environmental behavior and assessing their ecological risks, and can provide a basis for controlling tire wear particle pollution.
This paper summarizes the research findings in recent years on the key environmental behaviors of tire wear particles (Figure 1), mainly including the migration behavior of tire wear particles in different environmental media, environmental transformation, the release mechanism of intrinsic harmful additives, and their enrichment and carrying of coexisting environmental pollutants. In addition, it explores the impact mechanisms and structure-activity relationships of environmental interfacial chemical processes on the environmental behavior and effects of tire wear particles. Finally, it analyzes the limitations of current research on the environmental behavior of tire wear particles in terms of sample diversity, systematic monitoring, and comprehensive impact assessment. The future research directions are discussed, emphasizing the need for more systematic field investigations and deeper studies on transformation mechanisms of tire wear particles to promote a comprehensive understanding and effective management of them.

2 Migration Of Tire Wear Particles In The Environment

Tire wear particles mainly migrate to different environmental media through road runoff, rainwater scouring, and atmospheric transport (Figure 2)[20-21]. The vast majority of tire wear particles, after being generated, deposit in the soil on and around the roads[22]; under the action of rainwater scouring, some particles further spread to surface water, river or lake sediments, groundwater systems, and wastewater treatment plants[23-24]; a small portion of the smaller-sized tire wear particles enter the atmosphere and undergo long-distance transport[25].

2.1 Rainwater Runoff And Surface Runoff Dispersion

After tire wear particles are generated on the road, larger particles settle on the road due to gravity and undergo heterogeneous aggregation with dust, road particles, and brake particles, forming even larger aggregates[26]. Under the action of rainwater flushing, road runoff is formed, carrying these particles. Among them, the larger particles are intercepted by the soil on both sides of the road. Influenced by various factors (such as rainfall and terrain), there are differences in the flux of tire wear particles entering the environment through road runoff. Model predictions show that 25% to 75% of tire wear particles can be washed to the roadside soil environment by road runoff[27⇓-29]. The concentration of tire wear particles in the soil decreases with increasing distance from the road edge[30]; about 80% of tire wear particles are deposited within 5 m of the soil on both sides of the road, and the content of tire wear at 0.5 m from the road edge is much higher than that at 2.5 m from the road edge[31]. Tire wear particles mainly accumulate in the surface soil, with limited vertical migration; at a depth of 3 cm, the concentration of tire wear particles is 1/30th that of the surface soil[32]. Tire wear particles also enter sewage treatment plants through municipal pipeline systems and may be applied to agricultural soils in the form of activated sludge after treatment[33]. Kole et al.[34] analyzed the mass flow of tire wear particle runoff transport processes through modeling. The results showed that 8,768 tons of tire wear particles enter the environment annually in the Netherlands, of which approximately 67% remain in the soil, 15% enter sewage treatment plants through drainage systems, and 12% directly or indirectly enter surface water through runoff (Figure 2).
Given the complex physicochemical properties of tire wear particles (such as composition, size, shape, and surface properties), their migration into various environmental media is a complex process influenced by factors such as hydrodynamic conditions (rainfall, flow velocity, etc.) and water chemistry (pH, ionic strength, coexisting organic matter, and natural particles). Most existing studies on the migration and dispersion of tire wear particles in environmental media are based on mass flux models, and there is insufficient understanding of the microscopic processes and mechanisms of their migration and dispersion in the environment. Moreover, due to the limitations of detection methods, the focus has primarily been on larger particles (ranging from tens to hundreds of micrometers), with fewer studies on the migration behavior of submicron and nanoscale particles[35].

2.2 Atmospheric Transmission And Diffusion

After tire wear particles are generated, a portion (0.1% to 10%) will become airborne, spread with air currents, and eventually settle on the ground (such as in soil and surface water). The primary factors influencing the atmospheric transport of tire wear particles are their size, which can be categorized into segments > 10 μm, 1-10 μm, 0.1-1 μm, and < 0.1 μm[34]. Particles larger than 10 μm in size are difficult to remain suspended due to gravity and tend to deposit at the source, such as on roads. Particles in the 1-10 μm range, during their atmospheric transport, are influenced by particle characteristics and local climatic and topographical conditions, with transport times ranging from a few minutes to several hours and distances that can reach tens of kilometers. During long-distance transport, tire wear particles tend to aggregate with other airborne components, forming larger polymers, which affects their transport and deposition efficiency[36]. Currently, there is limited research on the atmospheric transport processes of 0.1-1 μm tire wear particles, with a lack of clear data. Based on studies of other PM2.5 particles, it is speculated that nanoscale tire wear particles can remain suspended in the air for days to weeks, with transport distances reaching up to 1,000 km. Although tire wear particles have been detected in large quantities in the atmosphere, compared to other particulate matter, there is insufficient research on their transport and transformation processes in the atmospheric environment, their impact mechanisms on PM2.5 formation, and their effects on human respiratory health.

2.3 Aggregation And Sedimentation Of Tire Wear Particles In Aquatic Environments

The aggregation and sedimentation of tire wear particles in aquatic environments are crucial factors affecting their migration, existence state, and distribution characteristics[8]. Currently, there is limited direct research on the aggregation and sedimentation processes of tire wear particles in water. However, insights can be gained from studies on the aggregation and sedimentation of other microplastics and engineered nanoparticles to some extent. As shown in Figure 3, under the influence of various substances in water (such as different metal ions and natural organic matter (NOM)), the surface charge of tire wear particles is weakened, leading to homogeneous aggregation. At the same time, a large number of colloidal particles (with opposite surface charges to those of tire wear particles) present in environmental waters can cause heterogeneous aggregation with the tire wear particles. This aggregation process significantly alters the stability, settling rate, and mobility of tire wear particles in environmental waters[37-38], and also affects their spatial distribution in aquatic environments (such as suspension in water and accumulation in sediments). It is noteworthy that colloidal particles in actual water bodies are typically natural mineral-organic composites[39], making the interaction mechanisms with tire wear particles more complex.
Tire wear particles in the aquatic environment adsorb large molecules such as natural organic matter and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on their surface, forming an "eco-corona"[40]. These interfacial chemical processes alter their surface physicochemical properties (such as surface hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity, the number and type of oxygen-containing functional groups, and the strength of steric hindrance), thereby affecting their aggregation process and mobility. Previous studies have shown that a small amount of carboxyl groups on the surface of polystyrene particles reduces surface hydrophobicity, selectively adsorbs components of different molecular weights from humic acid, fulvic acid, and EPS, presenting varying strengths of steric hindrance effects, leading to different migration characteristics of the particles[41]. Compared with other types of particulate matter (such as conventional microplastics and engineered nanoparticles), tire wear particles have more complex chemical compositions and higher heterogeneity in surface physicochemical properties[42-43]. The mechanisms of selective adsorption of NOM and EPS, as well as the processes of aggregation and sedimentation, and the main influencing factors for tire wear particles in the aquatic environment, differ significantly and cannot be accurately inferred from other types of particulate matter. Therefore, the homogeneous and heterogeneous aggregation processes of real tire wear particles in the aquatic environment and their main influencing factors urgently need to be studied.
Due to the widespread and continuous hydrological exchange between surface water and groundwater, tire wear particles can be transported into the groundwater system; secondly, micro- and nano-scale tire wear particles may undergo vertical migration in the soil, entering deeper layers of the soil through soil pores, until they migrate to the groundwater[44]. The transport capacity of tire wear particles in soil and groundwater is influenced not only by the particle size, saturation, and roughness of the porous medium but also by their own physicochemical properties. For example, oxygen-containing functional groups (such as hydroxyl and carbonyl groups) on tire wear particles can increase the surface hydrophilicity of the particles, enhance colloid stability (i.e., reduce aggregation behavior), and promote the transport of particles in saturated porous media[45].

3 Transformation Of Tire Wear Particles In The Environment

3.1 Physical And Chemical Transformation Of Tire Wear Particles During Environmental Migration

During the migration of tire wear particles in the environment, they undergo morphological changes such as cracking and fragmentation under the influence of mechanical forces from the surrounding environment (including friction from soil and gravel, collisions from turbulence, etc.)[15,46-47]. As surface cracks expand, the particles break, releasing smaller secondary particles and additives (such as nano carbon black and silica particles, etc.)[48-49]. Tire wear particles also undergo direct or indirect chemical transformations under the influence of ultraviolet light, oxidants, and other factors, including photo-oxidation, ozone decomposition, and thermal oxidation. Photo-oxidation is considered the most important aging process for tire wear particles, mainly occurring in the atmosphere and on road surfaces. The typical chemical bonds in tire wear particles (containing polymer components), such as C—C, C—H, and C—O, require high-energy ultraviolet light (i.e., UV-C, 100-280 nm) to break[50]; these chemical bonds cannot absorb ultraviolet light with a wavelength greater than 190 nm. The spectral range of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth is primarily 280-400 nm[51], making it difficult for tire wear particles to be directly photodegraded by ultraviolet light. However, the chromophores in the rubber components of tire wear particles (such as C=C, C=O, and aromatic structures, etc.) absorb ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 290-400 nm, forming free radicals that induce the cleavage of polymer chains, leading to the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups (such as C—O, C=O, and COO—, etc.)[52-53], triggering indirect aging. The aging process alters the composition and surface properties of tire wear particles (such as surface roughness, particle size, surface functional groups, and micro-pore structure, etc.), affecting the interactions and aggregation behavior between tire wear particles, the leaching process of internal additives, pollutant adsorption behavior, and biological toxicity, etc.[54-55].
Due to the presence of the surface ozone layer, tire wear particles also undergo ozone decomposition (Figure 4). The carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C) in the rubber components of tire wear particles are oxidized by ozone, leading to their cleavage and the formation of functional groups such as hydroxyl or carboxyl[56]. As a result, cracks appear on the surface of the rubber body of the tire wear particles. In addition to direct oxidation by ozone, ozone can also generate oxygen radicals that further attack C—O and C—H bonds, ultimately producing oxygen-containing functional groups such as C=O and O—C=O[15]. Moreover, an increase in environmental temperature promotes the diffusion of oxygen within the tire wear particles and activates oxidation reactions, leading to the breakage of the molecular chains and a decrease in molecular weight of the rubber[57], which ultimately results in the release of small-sized secondary particles from the tire wear particles. During summer, the temperature of asphalt roads can reach up to 60 ℃, and for tire wear particles deposited on asphalt roads, the thermal oxidation process is significant. To resist the aging effects of ozone and temperature on tires, p-phenylenediamine antioxidants (PPDs) are commonly used additives in the rubber production process[58], and they also become a source of harmful internal additives in tire wear particles.

3.2 Biological Transformation Of Tire Wear Particles During Environmental Migration

During the migration of tire wear particles in the environment, a large number of microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) adhere to their surfaces, providing a carbon source for microbial growth[59]. The molecular chains of the rubber components in tire wear particles (such as polyisoprene) are cross-linked by sulfides. Both anaerobic and aerobic microorganisms in the environment can break these sulfide cross-links, leading to the degradation of rubber components, a decrease in cross-linking density, and the formation of low-molecular-weight compounds containing aldehyde groups and unsaturated bonds on the particle surface[60]. Studies have shown that various bacterial genera (such as Gordonia and Streptomyces) can secrete rubber-degrading enzymes, causing the degradation of polyisoprene into oligomers (i.e., low-molecular-weight compounds) containing aldehyde and ketone groups, which are ultimately converted into corresponding small molecular acids[61]. For example, Moraxella can use cis-1,4-polybutadiene rubber (with an average molecular weight of 2350) as a carbon source and degrade 40% of the rubber within 5 days[59]. Fungi (such as Gordonia, Nocardia, and Mycobacteria) easily adsorb onto the rough areas of the rubber particle surface and can even enter the interior of the particles through surface cracks, degrading the rubber components into compounds containing aldehyde groups[59].
Microorganisms have the potential to completely mineralize rubber components, converting them into carbon dioxide. By studying the mineralization time of the organic components in tire wear particles, the mineralization rate and half-life[62] can be calculated, allowing for an assessment of the environmental fate and behavior of tire wear particles. Due to differences in the molecular structure of natural and synthetic rubbers, their degradability by microorganisms also varies. Additionally, additives in tire wear particles (such as antioxidants and preservatives) inhibit bacterial and enzymatic activity, reducing the biodegradation process[63]. The release or transformation of organic additives in tire wear particles facilitates subsequent biodegradation processes[64]. Therefore, different types of tire wear particles, under varying environmental conditions, exhibit significant differences in their biodegradation half-lives, which presents a challenge in evaluating the biodegradation process of tire wear particles.

4 Release Of Intrinsic Harmful Additives From Tire Wear Particles

The components of tire wear particles include various additives such as plasticizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, and light-thermal stabilizers[42,65], which account for about 5% to 10% of the total. During the process of migration and transformation in the aquatic environment, these additives are released and undergo transformation. Tire wear particles release 35 types of organic micropollutants and 22 types of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons into the environment[66]. Among them, 4-methylaniline, benzothiazole, naphthalene, arylamines, and zinc have been identified as candidate compounds with toxic effects. The total content of 15 types of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tire wear particles is 37 to 65 μg/g; the average content of benzothiazole substances is 99 μg/g, with a maximum of up to 250 μg/g[67]; the content of zinc is 10 to 20 mg/g[68].
Water body transport is an important pathway for the migration of tire wear particles in different environmental media. The release process of various types of additives with different properties into the water phase can vary significantly. The release of internal additives from particles to the water phase can be divided into two steps: the rapid release of additives on the particle surface to the water, which is mainly driven by the distribution ability of the additive at the solid-liquid interface between the particle and water; and the slow diffusion of additives from within the particle to its surface, which is influenced by the microstructure of the particle. Therefore, the inherent physicochemical properties of the particles (such as crystallinity, particle size, specific surface area, etc.), environmental factors (such as temperature, light, salinity, pH, etc.), and environmental transformation and aging processes all affect the degree of additive release. For example, the higher the glass transition temperature of the particles, the smaller the diffusion coefficient of the flame retardants they contain[69]. Additionally, increased salinity and pH in water inhibit the release of zinc from tire wear particles[70].
In recent years, scholars have conducted a series of studies on the release process of tire wear particle additives[71⇓-73]. The content of endogenous additives in tire wear particles, such as the antioxidant 6-PPD-quinone and the rubber accelerator 1,3-diphenylguanidine, decreases exponentially over time[17]. Leaching experiments in aqueous solutions show that the release amount of the additive 6-PPD-quinone is approximately 0.48 μg/g (release rate of about 0.16 μg/(g·day)), the release amount of 1,3-diphenylguanidine is approximately 43 μg/g (release rate of about 3 μg/(g·day)), and the release amount of benzothiazole is approximately 150 μg/g (release rate of about 50 μg/(g·day))[74]. Meanwhile, photo-aging causes the rubber matrix to relax and increases the number of micro-cracks, thereby accelerating the leaching of additives and organic carbon in TWPs[74], and the effect of photo-aging is stronger than that of thermal aging. The size of tire wear particles affects the release process of their endogenous additives. Studies have shown that small-sized (< 0.1 mm) tire wear particles release additives (using 6-PPD as an example) at a rate 1.7 times that of large-sized (> 2 mm) particles in water environments; under ultraviolet light, this size effect is more pronounced, with small-sized particles releasing additives at a rate 5.4 times that of large-sized particles[75]. This is because small-sized tire wear particles produce more reactive oxygen radicals under light, leading to stronger aging effects, more fragmentation, and thus enhancing the release of endogenous additives.
Tire wear particles contain components such as rubber, carbon black, and silica. The properties of tire wear particles (such as size distribution, degree of vulcanization, and the content of each component) vary significantly depending on the brand of the tire (with different production formulas), usage (such as passenger cars, trucks, etc.), and operating conditions. Due to the different interfacial distribution capabilities of additives in various components of tire wear particles, the release-adsorption equilibrium mechanism of these additives is more complex and harder to predict compared to single-component particles (such as conventional microplastics)[43,76]. The existing research results on the release patterns of additives in other types of particulate matter cannot accurately reflect the release amount and process of additives in tire wear particles in real environments. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct in-depth and systematic studies on the release extent, kinetic characteristics, and influencing mechanisms of different types of additives in tire wear particles under actual environmental conditions. Additionally, future research can quantify and analyze the environmental transformation processes and rates of tire wear particles under unified, near-real environmental conditions. This will help reveal their behavioral characteristics and long-term environmental risks under different environmental conditions.

5 Enrichment And Carriage Of Co-Existing Pollutants By Tire Wear Particles

Tire wear particles, once entering the environment, can act as carriers, adsorbing coexisting pollutants in the environment (such as non-biological pollutants like heavy metals and organic pollutants, and biological pollutants like pathogens and viruses)[18,77⇓-79], thereby promoting the spread of pollutants in the environment. For example, the chemical composition analysis of motor vehicle tire wear particles shows that the mean total content of 20 types of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds they carry is 94.13 μg/g[80]. Tire wear particles can adsorb environmental pollutants through hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, surface complexation, van der Waals forces, π-π interactions, and micropore filling (Figure 5), with the specific mechanisms and adsorption affinities determined by the particle components, microstructure, and surface chemical properties, the physicochemical properties of the pollutants, and the water chemistry conditions, among others[43,81]. Tire wear particles contain components such as rubber (e.g., Styrene-butadiene rubber, SBR), carbon black (CB), and silica. The adsorption affinities of different components vary significantly; a single component may dominate, or multiple components may interact, making the pollutant adsorption mechanism more complex and less predictable compared to conventional microplastic particles[76,82].
Due to the synergistic effect of carbon black and butadiene components in tire wear particles, these particles exhibit a strong adsorption capacity for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (such as acenaphthene and phenanthrene, etc.)[83]. In the initial stage, acenaphthene and phenanthrene primarily adsorb onto the surface carbon black of the particles. After reaching adsorption equilibrium, they continue to adsorb onto the rubber component (i.e., butadiene) and enter the interior of the particles. Due to the hydrophobic nature of tire wear particles, their adsorption capacity for pollutants with low solubility or hydrophobic properties is greater than that for highly soluble or hydrophilic pollutants. Compared to conventional polyethylene microplastics, tire wear particles show stronger adsorption capacities for tetracycline and amoxicillin[55]. Tire wear particles can also adsorb heavy metal ions through surface complexation. For example, due to the rich oxygen-containing functional groups and carbon black components in tire wear particles, their adsorption capacity for lead ions is stronger than that of polystyrene and polylactic acid microplastics[78]. Additionally, tire wear particles can provide growth sites for pathogenic bacteria and promote the rapid formation of biofilms, serving as carriers for the colonization and transport of pathogens[84].
The adsorption capacity of tire wear particles for pollutants is influenced by their aging process. Aging can alter the surface morphology of the particles, increasing surface roughness and the number of pores on the particle surface, thereby enhancing the ability to adsorb pollutants[55,85]. The aging process can also increase the number of oxygen-containing functional groups (such as ketones, esters, and hydroxyls), enhancing hydrophilicity[86-87], which is beneficial for the adsorption of heavy metal pollutants. In addition, aging changes the crosslinking degree of the rubber components in tire wear particles; a decrease in the crosslinking degree facilitates the diffusion of small molecules, promoting the adsorption of pollutants[88]. Common types of rubber used in tires, including natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, and butadiene-styrene rubber, have different resistance to aging[89]. There is currently limited research focusing on the adsorption processes of pollutants by tire wear particles from different sources and uses. Therefore, there is a need for in-depth studies on the adsorption capacity and kinetic characteristics of different types of tire wear particles after they undergo transformation or aging (including physical, chemical, and biological methods).

6 Conclusion and Prospects

The environmental interface processes and environmental effects of tire wear particles have received widespread attention and have become a frontier and hotspot in the field of environmental science research. This paper reviews the research progress on the migration process, environmental transformation, release of intrinsic harmful additives, and the enrichment and carriage of coexisting environmental pollutants by tire wear particles. Compared to other particulate pollutants (such as conventional microplastics), there is relatively less research on tire wear particles, which are an important source, and current studies still have many limitations and shortcomings.
First, China has the world's largest number of motor vehicles (4.35 billion in 2023) and road freight volume, with tire production and consumption reaching 980 million in 2023. However, there is no systematic report on the occurrence characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives in different environmental media in China. Due to the influence of regional road runoff, water environment conditions, and atmospheric factors on the release and migration of tire wear particles, it is difficult to accurately infer the environmental occurrence and distribution characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives in China using limited field survey data from a few other countries. Therefore, it is necessary to sample typical environmental media in potential hotspots for tire wear particles, conduct reliable and representative systematic investigations, evaluate the occurrence characteristics of tire wear particles and their additives, and identify the main influencing factors.
Secondly, research on the aging process of tire wear particles in the environment has focused on the changes in particle properties caused by the aging process, with a lack of quantitative analysis on the impact mechanisms and degradation rates. The influence of carbon black and zinc oxide components in tire wear particles during their photodegradation process is still unclear. Existing studies have mainly concentrated on the photo-aging process in aquatic environments, but atmospheric deposition is also an important pathway for the long-distance migration of tire wear particles to water bodies. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research on the mechanisms of the photo-aging process of tire wear particles at the gas-solid interface.
In addition, tire wear particle components are complex, and the properties of tire wear particles generated from different brands, sources, and operating conditions vary significantly, leading to different environmental behaviors and ecological effects. Future research should use tire wear particles that are close to real sources as the subject of study, or collect tire wear particle samples from actual environments for research, in order to more accurately understand and predict the environmental behavior and ecological effects of tire wear particles.

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Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(22241602)

National Natural Science Foundation of China(22125603)

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